THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


T 


THE     CHINESE: 

A 

GENERAL    DESCRIPTION 

OP 

IHE     EMPIRE     OF     CHINA 

AND 

ITS    INHABITANTS. 

BY 

JOHN  FRANCIS  DAVIS,  ESQ.,  F.R  S.,  &c. 

IN     TWO     VOLUMES. 

VOL.  I. 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH    WOOD-CUTS. 

NEW-YORK: 
HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  CLIFF-STREET. 

18  36. 


* 


:>S 


CONTENTS 

OF 

THE   FIRST  VOLUME. 


Introduction ,    Page  9 

CHAPTER  I. 

EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE. 

China  little  known  to  the  Ancients. — Embassy  from  Marcus 
Antoninus. — Nestorian  Christians. — Arabian  Travellers. — 
Ibn  Batuta.— Jews  in  China.— First  Catholic  Missions  to 
Tartary. — Travels  of  Marco  Polo. — Portugese  reach  China. 
— Previous  to  arrival  of  Europeans,  Chinese  less  disinclined 
to  foreign  intercourse. — Settlement  of  Macao. — Fruitless 
Embassies  to  Peking. — Catholic  Missions. — Quarrels  of  the 
Jesuits  with  the  other  Orders. — Persecutions. — Spaniards. — 
Dutch  settle  on  Formosa,— Expelled  by  Chinese.— Russian 
Embassies 17 

CHAPTER  11. 

ENGLISH    INTERCOURSE. 

First  Trade  between  England  and  China. — Forts  battered. — 
Leave  to  Trade. — Treaty  of  Commerce  at  Formosa. — Troub- 
les at  Canton.  —  Heavy  charges  on  Trade.  —  Amoy  and 
Ningpo.— Ten  European  ships  at  Canton  in  1736.— Commo- 
dore Anson  in  China. — Intrigues  of  Hong  Merchants. — Mr. 
Flint. — Quarrels  of  English  and  French. — Trade  forbidden  at 
Ningpo. — Seizure  of  Mr.  Flint.— His  Majesty's  ship  Argo. — 
The  Portuguese  give  up  an  innocent  Man. — Chinese  Maxim 
for  ruling  Barbarians. — Violent  conduct  of  a  Ship-master. — 
Debts  to  the  English  recovered  from  the  Chinese. — Shocking 
case  of  the  Gunner  in  1784.— Mission  and  Death  of  Colonel 
Cathcart. — Mission  of  Earl  Macartney  " 48 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

ENGLISH  INTERCOURSE — (CONTINUED). 

Objects  and  Results  of  the  Embassy  of  1793. — Affair  of  the 
Providence  Schooner. — American  Flag  hoisted  in  1802,  hauled 
down  in  1832.— First  Expedition  to  Macao. — Mission  to  Co- 
chin-China. — Admiral  Linois  repulsed  by  China  Fleet. — La- 
drones,  or  Chinese  Pirates. — A  Chinese  killed  by  a  Sailor, 
who  is  not  delivered  up. — Second  Expedition  to  Macao. — 111 
Success  of  Admiral  Drury. — Interdict  against  Mr.  Roberts  at 
Canton. — A  Linguist  seized. — His  Majesty's  ship  Doris. — 
Trade  stopped  by  the  Committee,  who  succeed  in  their  ob- 
jects.— Mission  of  Lord  Amherst. — Question  of  the  Ko-tow. — 
Forts  silenced  by  the  Alccste  Frigate. — Cases  of  Homicide  in 
1820  and  1821. — His  Majesty's  ship  Topaz. — Trade  reopened. 
—Fire  of  Canton. — Failure  of  Hong  Merchants. — Dissensions 
with  Chinese. — Factory  invaded  by  Fooyuen. — Letter  from 
Governor-general  to  Viceroy.  —  Voyage  of  the  Amherst.  — 
Fighting  between  Smuggling  Ships  and  Chinese.— Termina- 
tion of  the  Company's  Charter Page  75 

CHAPTER  IV. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  OF  CHINA. 

Eighteen  Provinces  of  China.— Comprise  about  twenty  degrees 
of  latitude,  by  twenty  of  longitude. — Extremes  of  Heat  and 
Cold. — Principal  Chains  of  Mountains. — Two  great  Rivers. 
— The  Grand  Canal. — Crossing  the  Yellow  River. — Great 
Wall. — Province  of  the  Capital— Other  Provmces.— Independ- 
ent Mountaineers. — Chain  of  volcanic  symptoms  in  the  west 
of  China. — Manchow  and  Mongol  Tartary. — Neighbouring 
and  tributary  countries.— Chinese  account  of  Loo-choo— of 
Japan 124 

CHAPTER  V. 

SUMMARY    OP   CHINESE    HISTORY. 

Early  History  of  China  mythological. — Three  Emperors. — Five 
Sovereigns.— Periods  of  Hea  and  Shang— of  Chow. — Confu- 
cius.— Period  of  Tsin. — First  universal  Sovereign. — Erection 
of  Great  Wall.— Period  of  Han— of  three  States— of  Tang. — 
Power  of  the  Eunuchs. — Invention  of  Printing. — Period  of 
Soong.— Mongol  Tartars. — Koblai  Khan.— Degeneracy  of  his 
Successors— who  are  driven  out  by  Chinese.— Race  of  Ming 


CONTENTS.  VI 

— Arrival  of  Catholic  Priests. — Manchow  Tartar?  take  China 
— opposed  by  Sea. — Emperor  Kang-hy. — Kienloong.— First 
British  Embassy. — Keaking's  last  Will.-r-Present  Emperor. — 
Catholic  Missionaries  finally  discarded    ....    Page  160 

CHAPTER  VI. 

GOVERNMENT  AND   LEGISLATION. 

Paternal  Authority  the  principle  of  Chinese  Rule.— Malversa- 
tions at  Canton,  in  some  degree  an  e.\ception  to  the  Empire 
at  large. — Despotism  tempered  by  influence  of  Public  Opin- 
ion.— Motives  to  Education. — Reverence  for  Age. — Wealth 
has  Influence,  but  is  little  respected. — Real  Aristocracy  offi- 
cial, and  not  hereditary.— The  Emperor— is  High  Priest.— 
Ministers. — Machinery  of  Government. — Checks  on  Magis- 
trates.— Civil  Officers  superior  to  Military. — Low  art  of  War. 
— Guns  cast  by  Missionaries. — Penal  Code  of  China. — Merits 
and  Defects. — Arrangement. — Punishments. — Privileges  and 
Exemptions.  —  primes.  -^  Character  of  Code.  —  Testimonies, 
foreign  and  domestic,  in  favour  of  its  practical  results. — Chi- 
nese recognise  sanctions  superior  to  absolute  will  of  Empe- 
ror     192 

CHAPTER  Vn. 

CHARACTER  AND  MANNERS, 

Chinese  appear  at  Canton  in  their  vvorst  phase. — Instance  of 
Gratitude.— Good  and  bad  Traits.— Pride  and  Ignorance. — 
Age  and  high  Station  most  honoured. — Regard  to  Kindred 
and  Birthplace.— Real  extent  of  Infanticide. — Physical  Char- 
acteristics,—  Personal  Appearance.  —  Caprices  of  National 
Taste. — Primitive  Features. — Degeneracy  of  Imperial  Kin- 
dred.—Highest  Honours  open  to  Talent  and  Learning. — Ab- 
sence of  Ostentation. — Condition  of  Female  Sex. — But  one 
legal  Wife. — Marriage. — Ceremonies  attending  it. — Children. 
— Education. -rFuneral  Rites. — Periods  of  Mourning    .    240 

CHAPTER  VHI. 

MANNERS    AND    CUSTOINIS. 

The  New  Year. — Fireworks.— Contrariety  of  Usages  and  No- 
tions to  our  own.— Festivals. — Meeting  the  Spring. — Encour- 
agements, to  Husbandry.— Festival  for  the  Dead.— Chinese 
Assumption.  —  Ceremonial  Usages.  —  Diplomatic  Forms. — 
Feasts  and  Entertainments. — Dinners.— Particular  descrip- 
A  2 


nil  CONTENTS. 

tion  of  onQ. — Asiatic  Politeness. — Articles  of  Food  and  Drink. 
— Taverns  and  Eating-houses. — Amusements. — Gambling. — 
Conviviality. — Kate-flying. — Imperial  Hunts. — Skating  at  Pe- 
king     Page  285 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS. 

Costume  of  better  Classes. — Absence  of  Arms  or  Weapons  from 
Dress.— Summer  and  Winter  Costume.— Paucity  of  Linen. — 
General  Use  of  Furs  and  Skins.— Sudden  Changes  of  Fashion 
not  known. — All  Modes  prescribed  by  a  particular  Tribunal. — 
Singular  Honours  to  Just  Magistrates. — Shaving  and  Sham- 
poomg, — Female  Dress. — Chinese  Dwellings. — Description  of 
a  large  Mansion.— Tiling  of  Roofs. — Gardens. — Furniture. — 
Taste  for  Antiques. — Travelling  by  Land. — Government  Post 
not  available  to  individuals.- Printed  Itineraries.— Travelling 
by  Water. — Public  Passage-boats.— Passing  a  Sluice  on  the 
Canal. — Same  Practice  600  years  ago 320 

CHAPTER  X. 

C  I  T  I  E  S — P  EKING. 

External  Walls  of  Peking. — Interior  Aspect  of  Tartarian  City. — 
Circuit  of  the  Imperial  Wall.— Southern  or  Chinese  City. — 
Difficulty  of  Feeding  the  Population. — Dangers  of  the  Em- 
peror.— Gardens  of  Yuen-ming-yuen. — Occurrence  there  in  the 
last  Embassy. — Expenses  of  the  Court. — Tartars  and  Chi- 
nese.— Police  of  Peking. — Efficiency  of  Chinese  Police. — 
Case  of  a  French  Crew  murdered. — Punishment  of  the 
Pirates  , 352 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


The  Emperor  Kien  Loong 77 

Passing  a  Sluice .  131 

Plan,  Elevation,  and  Section  of  Great  Wall      .         .        .138 

Chinese  Military  Station,  with  Soldiers     ....  188 

Mandarin  in  a  Sedan 214 

Chinese  Shield 218 

Instruments  of  War 219 

Punishment  of  Wooden  Collar 229 

Small  Feet  of  a  Chinese  Lady 255 

Summer  and  Winter  Caps         ....:.  323 

Husbandman 332 

Accommodation  Barge 346 


INTRODtPCTI^W.^ 


The  following  work  owes  its  origin:;!^  ?t  collection 
of  notes  which  the  author  made  while  resident  in 
China;  and  these  notes  were  compiled  for  a  reason 
not  altogether  dissimilar  to  the  motive  which  a 
French  writer  alleges  for  an  undertaking  of  the 
same  kind — "  le  desir  de  tout  connaitre,  en  etant 
oblige  de  .le  decrire."  A  residence  of  more  than 
twenty  years  (which  terminated  in  t]ie  author  suc- 
ceeding, for  some  months  previous  to  his  final  re- 
tirement, the  late  amiable  and  unfortunate  Lord 
Napier  as  His  Majesty's  chief  authority  in  China) 
has  perhaps  been  calculated  to  mature  and  correct 
those  opinions  of  the  country  and  people  which  he 
liad  formed,  as  a  very  young  man,  in  accompanying 
Lord  Amherst  on  the  embassy  to  Peking  in  1816. 
If  some  acquaintance,  besides,  with  the  language 
and  literature  of  the  Cliinese  empire  has  not  been 
of  considerable  assistance  to  him  in  increasing  the 
extent  and  accuracy  of  his  infoKmajjon,  it  jnjist  be 
his  own  fault  entirely^and  not  ajiy  i«i[ant:  of>pppor-^ 
tunities  and  means.  ,     .•.•:;?  , 

It  is  singular  that  no  general  and  systematic  work 
on  China  has  ever  yet  been  produced  in  this  coun- 
try, notwithstanding  that  our  immediate  interest  in 
the  subject  has  been  vastly  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  European  nation.  At  the  head  of  travels,  both 
as  to  date  and  excellence,  stand  the  authentic  ac- 
count of  Lord  Macartneyls  Mission,  by  Staunton, 
and  Barrow's  China,  to  both  of  which  works  it  will 
be  seen  that  reference  has  been  more  than  oiicq 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

made  in  the  following  pages.  The  above  authori- 
ties have  not  been  superseded  by  any  thing  that  has 
since  appeared  in  the  course  of  thirty  or  forty  years, 
though  the  Avorks  of  Mr.  Ellis  and  Doctor  Abel,  the 
results  of  Lord  Amherst's  embassy,  are  of  a  highly 
respectable  class,  and  contain  much  valuable  in- 
formation on  those  points  to  which  they  confine 
themselves.  Still  no  general  account  of  the  Chi- 
nese empire  has  ever  issued  from  the  English  press ; 
and  Pere  du  Halde's  compilation  has  still  remained 
the  only  methodized  source  of  information  on  the 
subject.  One  century  exactly  has  now  elaj5sed 
since  that  voluminous,  and  in  many  respects  highly 
valuable,  work  was  first  printed.  A  gi-eat  deal  has 
of  necessity  become  antiquated,  and  it  is  not  easy 
for  any  one  who  is  personally  unacquainted  with 
China  to  separate  the  really  sound  and  useful  in- 
formation it  contains  from  the  prejudice  which  dis- 
torts some  portions,  and  the  nonsense  which  en- 
cumbers others.  Of  the  last,  the  endless  pages  on 
the  "  Doctrine  of  the  Pulse"  may  be  taken  as  one 
specimen. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  the  general  reader  to  see 
before  him,  in  one  view,  and  in  chronological  order, 
most  of  the  miscellaneous  works  concerning  China 
which  have  at  different  times  appeared  in  various 
languages.  To  his  original  list  the  writer  has  ad- 
ded from  the  Catalogue*  of  the  Oriental  Library, 
presented  by  his  venerable  friend,  Mr.  Marsden,  to 
King's  College,  where  a  spacious  room  has  been 
expressly  devoted  to  its  reception. 

The  earhest  in  point  of  date  are  the  Travels  of 
Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian,  of  which  a  Latin  transla- 
tion was  made  about  the  year  1320,  and  the  first 
edition  appeared  soon  after  the  invention  of  the  an 
of  printing,  in  the  fifteenth  century. f 

*  Bibliotheca  Marsdeniana,  p.  172. 

t  The  best  modern  version  of  this  work  is  in  English,  copioug. 
Jy  illustrated  with  notes,  by  Mr.  Marsden,  4to.,  1818. 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

1585.  Historia  del  gran  Reyno  de  la  China.     By  J. 

G.  de  Mendo5a.     8vo. 
]601.  Historia  de  las  Missiones  en  los  Reynos  de  la 

China,  &c.     By  L.  de  Guzman.     Folio. 
1617.  Histoire    de    I'Expedition   Chretienne    a    la 

Chine.     By  N.  Trigault.     4to.   ; 
1621.   Epitome  Historial  del  Reyno  de  la  China. 

By  Maldonado.     8vo.  •    gg 

1634.  History  of  the  Court  of  the  King  "of  China. 

From  the  French  of  M.  Baudier.     4to. 
1643.  Relatione  della  Grande  Monarchia  della  Cina. 

By  Alvarez.     Lemedo.     4to. 
1653.  Voyages  du  Pere  Alexandre  de  Rhodes  en 

Chine,  &c.     4to. 
1655.  Brevis  Relatiode  numero  Christianorum  apud 

Sinas.     By  Martini. 

1659.  Martini  Martinii  Sinica  Historia.   Amst.   8vo. 

1660.  Theoph.  SpizeUi  de  re  Literaria  Sinensium. 

12mo. 
1667.  Sinarum    Scientia  Politico-Moralis.     By   P. 
Intorcetta,     Folio. 

China  Illustrata.    Athanasius  Kircher.  Folio. 

1673.  Embassy  from  the  East  India  Company  of  the 

United  Provinces  to  the  Grand  Tartar  Cham^ 
Emperor  of  China.  By  Nieuhoff.  (Eng- 
lished by  J.  Ogilby.)  Folio. 
1679,  History  of  the  Tartars;  their  wars  with  and 
overthrow  of  the  Chineses.  From  the 
Spanish  of  Mendoza.     8vo. 

Basihcon  Sinense.     By  Andrew  Miiller.   4to. 

1686.  Tabula  Chronologica  Monarchiae  Sinicae.    By 

P.  Couplet.     FoHo. 
1688.  Nouvelle  Relation  de  la  Chine.     G.  de  Ma- 
gaillans.     4to. 

1697.  Nouveaux  Memoires  sur  I'Etat  present  de  la 

Chine.     By  Louis  le  Compte.     12mo. 

1698.  Journal  of  Russian  Embassy  overland  to  Pe- 

king.    By  Adam  Brand,  Secretary  of  the 
Embassy.     8vo. 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

1699.  Histoire  de  PEmpereiir  de  la  Chine  (Kdng- 

hy).     By  Joachim  Boiivet.     12mo. 

1700.  Varia  Scripta  de  cultibus  Sinarum,  inter  Mis- 

sioiiarios  et  Patres  Societatis  Jesu  contro- 
versis.     8vo. 

Relation  du  Voyage  fait  a  la   Chine,  sur  le 

y ii^seau  TAmphetrite.     12mo. 

1711.  Li\'  Classici  Sex  (namely,  the  Four  Books, 
Hehbu-kiiii;,  and  Seaou-heo).  By  Pere  Noel . 
4t6.       ■  ^■;    ■, 

1714.  Relation  de  la  ^Ronvelle  Persecution  de  la 
Chine:     F.  G.  de  S.  Pierre.     12mo. 

1718.  ■  Anciennes  Relations  de  deux  Voyagenrs  Ma- 
hometans.    Par  Eusebe  Renaudot.     Svo. 

1728.  Nouveau  Voyage  autour  du  Monde,  avec  une 
Description  de  I'Empire  de  la  Chine.  By 
Le  Gentil.  '  12mo. 

1730.  Museum  Sinicum,  opera  Th.  S.  Bayer.     Svo. 

1735.  Description  Geographique,  Historique,  Chro- 
nologique.  Politique,  et  Physique  de  TEm- 
pire  de  la  Chine,  &c.  Par  J.  B.  du  Halde. 
Folio,  4toi'ti. 

1737.  MeditatiOnes  Sinicee,  opera  St.  Fourmont. 
Folio.  ,,* 

1750.  Authentic  Memoirs  of  the  Christian  Church 
\i\  China,  with  the  Causes  of  the  Declension 
of  Christianity  in  that  Empire.  From  the 
German  of  J.  L.  Mosheim.     Svo. 

1760.  Memoire  dans  laquelle  on  prouve  que  les  Chi- 
nois  sont  mie  Colonic  Egyptienne.  De 
Guignes.     Svo. 

1763.  Travels  of  John  Bell,  of  Antermony.  4to.  2 
vols. 

1765.  Voyage  to  China  and  the  East  Indies.  By  Pe- 
ter Osbeck.     Svo. 

1770.  Le  Chou-king,  un  des  Livres  Sacres  des  Chi- 
nois.     Par  le  Pere  Gaubil.     Svo. 

1773.  Lettre  de  Pekin,  sur  le  Genie  de  la  Langue 
Chiucise.     Parle  P^re  Amiot.     4to. 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

1773.  Recherches  Philosophiques  sur  les  Egyptiens 

et  les  Chinois.  Par  M.  de  Pauw.  12mo. 
1776.  Memoire  de  M.  D'Anville  sur  la  Chine.  8vo. 
1785.  Histoire  Generale   de  la  Chine,  traduite  du 

Tongkien-kang-mou.     Par  le  Pere   Mailla. 

12  torn.  4t.o. 
Description  Generale  de  la  Chine.    Par  I'Abbe 

Grosier.     4to. 

1797.  Authentic  Account  of  an  Embassy  from  the 

King  of  Great  Britain  to  the  Emperor  of 
China.  By  Sir  Geo.  L.  Staunton,  Bart.  2 
vols.     4to. 

Memoires  concernant  les  Chinois.     16  torn. 

4to. 

1798.  Embassy  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 

to  China.     From  the  Journal  of  A.  E.  Van 

Braam.     2  vols.  8vo. 
1804.  Travels  in  China.     By  John  Barrow.     4to. 
1808.  Voyages  a  Peking,  &c.,  Par  M.  de  Guignes. 

3  tom.  8vo. 
1810.   Ta-tsing-leu-lee ;  the  Penal  Code  of  China. 

By  Sir  George  T.  Staunton,  Bart.     4to. 

1813.  Dictionnaire  Chinois,  Frangais,  et  Latin.    Par 

de  Guignes.     Folio. 

1814.  Memoires  concernant  les  Chinois,  rediges  par 

Silvestre  de  Sacy.     4to. 

1815.  Dictionary  of  the  Chinese  Language,  in  Three 

Parts.  By  R.  Morrison.  6  vols.  4to.  (Com- 
pleted in  1823.) 

1816.  Dialogues   and  detached   Sentences  in   the 

Chinese  Language.    By  R.  Morrison.    8vo. 

1817.  A    Chinese    Drama.     Translated   from    the 

Original  by  J.  F,  Davis.     12mo. 

Journal  of  Embassy  to  China.     By  Henry 

Ellis.     4to. 

View  of  China.     By  R.  Morrison.     4to. 

Chinese  Gleaner,  Malacca.   8vo.    (Concluded 

in  1821.) 

Sacred  Edict.    Translated  by  W.  Milne.  8vo. 

Vol.  I.— B 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

1818.  Narrative  of  a  .louriiey  in  the  Interior  oi' 
China.     By  Clarke  Abel.     4to. 

1821.  Chinese  Embassy  to  the  Khan  of  the  Tour- 

gouths.     By  Sir  G.  T.  Staunton^  Bart.    8vo. 

1822.  Miscellaneous  Notices  relating  to  China.     By 

Ditto.     8vo. 

Siemens  de  la  Grammaire  Chinoise.   Par  Abel 

Remusat,     8vo. 

1823.  Chinese  Moral  Maxims.     Compiled  by  J.  F. 

Davis.     8vo. 

1824.  Meng-tseu,  vel  Mencium.     Edidit   S.  Julien- 

8vo. 

1826.  Les  Deux  Cousines ;   Roman  Chinois.     Par 

Abel  Remusat.     12mo. 

1827.  Voyage  a  Peking,  a  travers  la  Mongolie.  Par 

M.  G.  Timkouski.     Bvo. 

1828.  The    Four  Books,  translated  by  D.  Collie. 

8vo. 

1829.  The  Fortunate  Union;  a  Chinese  Romance. 

Translated    from   the   Original    by   J.    F. 
Davis.     8vo. 

1831.  Notitia  Linguae  Sinicae,  auctore  P.  Premare. 

4to, 

1832.  Cercle  de  Craie,  Drame   Chinois.     Traduil 

par  Stanislas  Julien.     8vo. 

Chinese  Repository   (commenced),  Canton. 

8vo. 

1834.  Miscellaneous  Papers  concerning  China,  in 
Three  Volumes  of  Royal  Asiatic  Transac- 
tions, 4to.     (Commenced  1823.) 

• China,  an  Outline,  &c.    By  Peter  Auber.    8vo. 

The  following  pages  being  intended  wholly  for 
the  use  of  the  general  reader,  so  much  only  of 
each  subject  has  been  touched  upon  as  seemed  cal- 
culated to  convey  a  summary,  though  at  the  same 
time  accurate,  species  of  information  in  an  easy  and 
popular  way.  More  detailed  knowledge  on  each 
separate  point  must  be  sought  for,  by  the  few  who 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

are  likely  to  require  it,  in  one  or  other  of  the  nu- 
merous works  above  named,  and  the  catalogue 
here  given  may  prove  serviceable  for  that  purpose. 
The  superiority  which  the  Chinese  possess  over 
the  other  nations  of  Asia  is  so  decided  as  scarcely 
to  need  the  institution  of  an  elaborate  comparison. 
Those  who  have  had  opportunities  of  seeing  both 
have  readily  admitted  it,  and  none  more  so  than 
the  Right  Honourable  Henry  Elhs,  our  ambassador 
to  Persia,  whose  intimate  personal  acquaintance 
with  China  and  India,  as  well  as  with  Persia,  ren- 
ders him  peculiarly  calculated  to  form  a  just  esti- 
mate. The  moral  causes  of  a  difference  so  striking 
may  perhaps  occur  to  the  reader  of  the  subjoined 
work :  the  physical  causes  consist,  it  may  reason- 
ably be  supposed,  in  the  advantages  which  China 
possesses  from  its  geographical  situation;  in  the 
generally  favourable  climate,  the  average  fertility 
of  soil,  and  the  great  facility  of  internal  intercourse 
which  the  country  possesses  from  nature,  and  which 
has  been  still  farther  improved  by  art.  The  early 
advancement  of  China,  in  the  general  history  of  the 
globe,  may  likewise  be  accounted  for,  in  some 
measure,  by  natural  and  physical  causes,  and  by 
the  position  of  the  whole  of  that  vast  country  (with 
a  very  trivial  exception)  within  the  temperate  zone. 
On  this  point  the  author  will  repeat  some  observa- 
tions which  he  long  since  made  in  another  place ; 
that  "  an  attentive  survey  of  the  tropical  regions  of 
the  earth,  where  food  is  produced  in  the  greatest 
abundance,  will  seem  to  justify  the  conclusion  that 
extreme  fertility,  or  power  of  production,  has  been 
rather  unfavourable  to  the  progress  of  the  human 
race  ;  or,  at  least,  that  the  industry  and  advance- 
ment of  nations  have  appeared  in  some  measure  to 
depend  on  a  certain  proportion  between  their  neces- 
sities and  their  natural  resources.  Man  is  by  nature 
an  indolent  animal,  and  without  the  stimulant  of  ne- 
cessity will,  in  the  first  instance,  get  on  as  well  as 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

he  can  with  the  provision  that  nature  has  made  for 
him.  In  the  warm  and  fertile  regions  of  the  trop- 
ics, or  rather  of  the  equinoctial,  where  lodging  and 
clothing,  the  two  necessary  things  after  food,  are 
rendered  almost  superfluous  by  the  climate,  and 
where  food  itself  is  produced  with  very  little  exer- 
tion,* we  find  how  small  a  progress  has  in  most 
instances  been  made ;  while,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  whole  of  Europe,  and  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  China,  are  situated  beyond  the  northern  tropic. 
If,  again,  we  go  farther  north,  to  those  arctic  regions 
where  man  exists  in  a  very  miserable  state,  we  shall 
find  that  there  he  has  no  materials  to  work  upon. 
Nature  is  such  a  niggard  in  the  returns  which  she 
makes  to  labour,  that  industry  is  discouraged  and 
frozen,  as  it  were,  in  the  outset.  In  other  words, 
the  proportion  is  destroyed ;  the  equinoctial  regions 
are  too  spontaneously  genial  and  fertile ;  the  arctic 
too  unkindly  barren ;  and  on  this  account  it  would 
seem  that  industry,  wealth,  and  civilization  have 
been  principally  confined  to  the  temperate  zone, 
where  there  are  at  once  necessity  to  excite  labour, 
and  production  to  recompense  it."  There  are,  no 
doubt,  other  important  circumstances,  besides  geo- 
graphical situation,  which  influence  the  advance- 
ment of  nations ;  but  this  at  least  is  too  considera- 
ble an  ingredient  to  be  left  out  of  the  calculation. 

J.  F.  D. 

*  See  the  observations  of  Humboldt  on  the  use  of  the  banana 
in  New  Spain. 


THE    CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE. 

China  little  known  to  the  Ancients. — Embassy  from  Marcus 
Antoninus.— Nestorian  Christians.— Arabian  Travellers. — 
Ibn  Batuta. — Jews  in  China. — First  Catholic  Missions  to 
Tartary.— Travels  of  Marco  Polo.— Portugese  reach  China. 
— Previous  to  arrival  of  Europeans,  Chinese  less  disinclined 
to  foreign  intercourse. — Settlement  of  Macao. — Fruitless 
Embassies  to  Peking.— Catholic  Missions.— Quarrels  of  the 
Jesuits  with  the  other  Orders. — Persecutions.— Spaniards. — 
Dutch  settle  on  Formosa. — Expelled  by  Chinese. — Russian 
Embassies. 

It  is  intended  in  the  following  pages  to  give  such 
an  account  of  the  manners  and  customs,  the  social, 
political,  and  religious  institutions,  together  with 
the  natural  productions,  the  arts,  manufactures,  and 
commerce  of  China,  as  may  be  deemed  interesting 
to  the  general  reader.  The  most  fitting  introduc- 
tion to  this  sketch  will  be,  a  cursory  view  of  the 
early  acquaintance  of  the  western  world  with  the 
country  qf  which  we  are  about  to  treat,  followed  up 
by  some  notices  of  the  more  modern  intercourse  of 
Europeans,  and  particularly  the  English,  with  the 
Chinese. 

Antiquity  aifords  us  but  a  few  uncertain  hints  re- 
garding an  empire  so  far  removed  to  the  utmost 
limits  of  Eastern  Asia  as  to  have  formed  no  part  in 
the  aspirations  of  Macedonian  or  of  Roman  domin- 
ion. Were  a  modern  conqueror  to  stop  on  the 
B2 


18  THE    CHINESE. 

banks  of  the  Ganges,  and  sigh  that  he  had  no  more 
nations  to  subdue,  what  has  been  admired  in  the 
pupil  of  Aristotle  himself  would  be  a  mere  absurd- 
ity in  the  most  ignorant  chieftain  of  these  more  en- 
lightened times.  We  may  reasonably  hope  that  the 
science  and  civilization  which  have  already  so  great- 
ly enlarged  the  bounds  of  our  knowledge  of  foreign 
countries,  may,  by  diminishing  the  vulgar  admira- 
tion for  such  pests  and  scourges  of  the  human  race 
as  military  conquerors  have  usually  proved,  advance 
and  facilitate  the  peaceful  intercourse  of  the  most 
remote  countries  with  each  other,  and  thereby  in- 
crease the  general  stock  of  knowledge  and  happi- 
ness among  mankind. 

It  seems  sufficiently  clear  that  the  Seres,  mention- 
ed by  Horace  and  other  Latin  writers,  were  not  the 
Chinese.*  This  name  has,  with  greater  probability, 
been  interpreted  as  referring  to  another  people  of 
Asia,  inhabiting  a  country  to  the  westward  of  Chi- 
na; and  the  texture,  termed  by  the  Romans  scrica, 
in  all  likelihood  meant  a  cotton  rather  than  a  silken 
manufacture,  which  latter  was  distinguished  by  the 
name  bombj/cina.  There  appears  sufficient  evidence, 
however,  of  the  fact,  that  some  of  the  ancients  were 
not  altogether  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  such  a 
people.  Arrian  speaks  of  the  Sinae,  or  Thinfc,  in 
the  remotest  parts  of  Asia,  by  whom  were  exported 
the  raw  and  manufactured  silks  which  were  brought 
by  the  way  of  Bactria  (Bokhara)  westward.  It  w»s- 
under  the  race  of  Han,  perhaps  the  most  celebrated . 
era  of  Chinese  history,  that  an  envoy  j|p^fta.ted  to 
have  been  sent  in  A.  D.  94,  by  the  seventeenth  em- 
peror of  that  dynasty,  to  seek  some  intercourse 
with  the  western  world.  This  minister  is  said  to 
have  reached  Arabia ;  and  as  it  is  certain  that  Hotyj 

*  It  is  noticed  by  Florus,  that  ambassadors  came  from  the 
Seres  to  Augustus  ;  but  Horace  notices  the  Seres  in  a  way 
which  makes  it  unlikely  that  they  were  the  Chinese.  *'  Nee 
tiollicihis  times  quid  Seres,  et  regnata  Cyro  Bactra  parent." 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     19 

the  prince  by  whom  he  was  deputed,  was  the  first 
sovereign  of  China  who  introduced  the  use  of  eu- 
nuchs into  tlie  palace,  it  may  be  deemed  probable 
that  he  borrowed  them  from  thence.  The  contests 
of  the  Chinese  with  the  Tartars,  even  at  that  early 
period,  are  stated  to  have  been  the  occasion  of  a 
Chinese  general  reaching  the  borders  of  the  Cas- 
pian, at  the  time  when  Trajan  was  Emperor  of 
Rome.  The  growing  consumption,  among  the  lux- 
urious Latins,  of  the  valuable  and  beautiful  silk  stuffs 
with  which  they  were  supphed  through  the  medium 
of  India,  seems  to  have  tempted  the  Emperor  Mar- 
cus Antoninus  to  despatch  an  embassy  to  the  coun- 
try which  was  reported  to  produce  those  manufac- 
tures. The  numerous  obstacles  presented  by  a  land 
journey  induced  him  to  send  his  mission  by  sea,  A. 
D.  161.  Like  most  attempts  of  the  kind,  this  ap- 
pears to  have  been  an  entire  failure,  and  the  ambas- 
sadors returned  from  China  without  having  paved 
the  way  to  a  more  frequent  or  intimate  intercourse 
with  that  secluded  country. 

The  Jesuits  have  informed  us,  that  some  of  the 
Catholic  missionaries  discovered,  in  the  year  1625, 
at  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  province  Shen- 
sy,  an  inscription  in  Syriac  letters,  recording  the 
first  introduction  of  Christianity  into  China  in  the 
year  635,  by  certain  Nestorian  bishops,  who  had 
been  driven  eastward  by  persecutions  in  the  Ro- 
man provinces.  We  are  not  indebted,  however,  to 
these  refugees  for  any  early  account  of  the  country. 
Their  existence  in  the  same  province  of  Shensy,  at 
the  period  when  Marco  Polo  visited  China,  is  clear- 
ly stated  by  that  traveller,  as  may  be  seen  in  Mars- 
den's  edition,  page  404.  To  those  who  travelled 
by  land  from  Syria,  and  other  countries  bordering 
on  the  Mediterranean,  it  was  the  easiest  of  access, 
as  being  the  most  westerly  point  of  the  empire,  to- 
wards Peking;  and  they  were  probably  induced  to 
settle  there,  from  finding  it  one  of  the  most  popu- 


20  THE  CHINESE. 

lous  and  civilized  portions  of  China  at  that  early 
period. 

Marco  Polo  besides  states,  that  in  a  city  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Nanking,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Yang-tse-Keang,  there  were  "  two  churches  of  Nes- 
torian  Christians,  which  were  built  in  1274,  when 
his  Majesty  the  Emperor  appointed  a  Nestorian, 
named  Mar  Sachis,  to  the  government  of  it  (the  city) 
for  three  years.  By  him  those  churches  were  es- 
tablished where  there  had  not  been  any  before,  and 
they  still  subsist."*  The  editor  justly  observes,  that 
the  existence  of  these  churches,  of  which  no  rea- 
sonable doubt  can  be  entertained,  is  a  curious  fact 
in  the  history  of  the  progress  made  by  the  Chris- 
tian religion  in  the  eastern  or  remoter  parts  of 
China.  "  It  is  remarkable,"  he  adds,  "  that  De  Guig- 
nes,  in  describing  a  religious  building  not  far  from 
this  city,  mentions  a  tradition  that  gives  strength  to 
the  behef  of  an  early  Christian  establishment  in 
that  quarter :  '  Les  Chinois  racontent  qu'un  Chretien, 
nomme  Kiang-tsy-tay,  vivoit  dans  ce  lieu  il  y  a  trois 
cents  ans;  on  montre  encore  son  appartement  dans 
la  partie  de  I'est.'  " 

It  is  to  the  Arabs  that  we  owe  the  first  distinct 
account  of  China,  and  of  its  peculiar  institutions  and 
customs.  Their  far-extended  conquests  brought 
them  to  the  confines  of  that  remote  empire ;  and 
the  enhghtenment  of  science  and  literature,  w^hich 
they  possessed  in  no  small  degree  during  the  eighth 
and  ninth  centuries,  led  many  individuals  among 
them  to  explore  unknown  countries,  and  to  record 
what  they  had  seen.  We  possess  an  interesting 
specimen  in  Renaudot's  translation  from  the  itine- 
raries of  two  Arabian  travellers,  in  the  years  850 
and  877.  These  bear  internal  evidences  of  truth 
and  accuracy  no  less  indisputable  than  those  which 
distinguish  the  relations  of  the  Venetian  traveller, 

*  Marsden's  Marco  Polo,  p.  501. 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE-     21 

Marco  Polo ;  and  as  they  have  reference  to  a  much 
earher  period  than  even  his,  must  be  considered  to 
possess  a  very  high  degree  of  interest.  We  can 
perceive  a  remarkable  identity  between  the  Chinese, 
as  they  are  therein  described,  and  the  same  people 
as  we  know  them  at  the  present  day,  although  a 
period  of  1000  years,  nearly,  has  since  elapsed ;  nor 
can  the  occurrence  of  one  or  two  very  remarkable 
discrepances  be  considered  as  any  impugnment  of 
the  general  vei-acity  of  these  travellers,  where  there 
is,  upon  the  whole,  so  much  of  sound  and  correct  in- 
formation. They  have,  in  fact,  evidently  proceeded 
from  some  confusion  in  the  original  manuscripts, 
by  which  observations  that  had  reference  to  other 
countries  lying  in  their  route,  and  which  are  true 
of  those  countries  at  the  present  time,  have  become 
incorporated  with  the  account  of  China  itself.  These 
Arabians  describe  a  city  called  Canfu,  which  was 
probably  Canton,  at  which  place  a  very  ancient 
mosque  exists  to  this  day.  The  frequency  of  fires, 
and  the  long  detention  of  ships,  from  various  causes, 
as  stated  by  them,  might  be  related  of  that  emporium 
of  foreign  trade  even  at  present.  "  This  city,"  they 
observe,  "  stands  on  a  great  river,  some  days  dis- 
tant from  the  entrance,  so  that  the  water  here  is 
fresh."  It  seems  ai  that  time  to  have  been  the  port 
allotted  to  the  Arabian  merchants  who  came  by 
sea;  and  the  travellers  notice  "many  unjust  deal- 
ings with  the  merchants  who  traded  thither,  which 
having  gathered  the  force  of  a  precedent,  there  was 
no  grievance,  no  treatment  so  bad,  but  they  exer- 
cised it  upon  the  foreigners  and  the  masters  of 
ships."  We  learn  that  the  port  was  at  length  for- 
saken, in  consequence  of  the  extortions  of  the 
mandanns  of  those  days ;  and  "  the  merchants  re- 
turned in  crowds  to  Siraf  and  Oman."  It  is  re- 
markable that  the  travellers  describe  the  entrance 
to  the  port  of  Canfu  as  the  "gates  of  China," 
which  may  possibly  be  a  translation  of  Hoo-mun, 


22  THE    CHINESE. 

"  Tiger's  gate,"  or  Boca  Tigris,  as  it  is  called  from 
the  Portuguese. 

These  Arabians  mention  in  particular  the  relief 
afforded  to  the  people  from  the  public  granaries 
during  famine.  The  salt-tax,  as  it  now  exists,  and 
the  use  of  tea,  are  thus  noticed : — "  The  emperor 
also  reserves  to  himself  the  revenues  that  arise 
from  salt,  and  from  a  certain  herb,  which  they  drink 
with  hot  water,  and  of  which  great  quantities  are 
sold  in  all  the  cities,  to  the  amount  of  vast  sums." 
The  public  imposts  are  stated  to  have  consisted  of 
duties  on  salt  and  tea,  with  a  poll-tax,  which  last 
has  since  been  commuted  into  a  tax  on  lands  :  these 
Arabians  likewise  mention  the  bamboo  as  the  univer- 
sal panacea  in  matters  of  police  ;  and  they  very  cor- 
rectly describe  the  Chinese  copper  money,  as  well 
as  porcelain,  wine  made  from  rice,  the  mainte- 
nance of  public  teachers  in  the  towns,  the  idolatry 
derived  from  India,  and  the  ignorance  of  astronomy, 
in  which  the  Arabians  were  their  first  instructers. 
It  is,  in  fact,  impossible  to  comprise  within  our  limits 
all  the  pertinent  remarks,  or  even  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  correct  information,  which  may  be  found 
in  this  curious  and  antique  relic  of  early  Arabian 
enterprise.  From  the  lights  which  it  affords,  as 
well  as  from  other  sources  of  information  relating 
to  the  first  intercourse  of  the  Mahometans  with 
China,  it  has  with  tolerable  certainty  been  inferred, 
that,  previous  to  the  Mongol  Tartar  conquest,  they 
resorted  to  that  rich  country  by  sea  chiefly,  and  in 
the  character  of  traders. 

Subsequent  to  the  establishment  of  the  Mongol 
Tartar  dynasty  by  Zenghis  Khan,  China  was  visited 
by  the  Arab,  Ibn  Batuta,  whose  travels  have  been 
translated  by  Professor  Lee.  He  describes  very 
truly  the  paper  circulation  instituted  by  the  Mon- 
gols, a  scheme  which  subsequently  failed,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  paper  being  rendered  utterly  worthless 
by  excessive  issues,  and  the  bad  faith  of  the  govern- 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     23 

nieiit,  which  derived  a  profit  from  the  circulation. 
Even  at  that  period,  Batuta  observes  that  "  they  did 
not  buy  or  sell  with  the  dirhem  or  dinar,  for,  should 
any  one  get  these  coins  into  his  possession,  he  would 
melt  them  down  immediately."  If  we  may  believe 
him,  the  Chinese  junks  in  his  time  sailed  as  far  as 
Calicut,  and  he  liimself  embarked  in  one  of  them  on 
his  voyage  to  China. 

The  Mahometan  creed  seems  to  have  been  estab- 
lished and  protected  as  the  religion  of  a  considera- 
ble part  of  the  population  soon  after  the  Mongol 
conquest  in  the  13th  century;  and  it  meets  with 
perfect  toleration  at  the  present  day,  its  professors 
being  freely  admitted  to  government  offices,  from 
which  Christians  are  rigidly  excluded.  There  is  a 
considerable  mosque  at  Canton,  of  great  antiquity, 
and  forming,  with  its  pagoda  or  minaret,  a  conspic- 
uous object  on  the  approach  to  the  city  by  the  river. 
Numbers  of  that  persuasion  occurred  in  every  part 
of  the  route  of  the  two  British  missions.  Some 
gentlemen  of  the  embassy  were  walking  in  1816 
with  Dr.  Morrison,  at  a  village  about  fifty  miles  from 
Peking,  when  they  observed,  inscribed  in  Chinese 
on  the  lantern  of  a  poor  shopman,  "  an  old  Mahom- 
etan." Being  asked,  whence  his  progenitors  came, 
the  old  man  answered,  "from  the  western  ocean;" 
but  he  could  give  no  farther  information,  except 
that  his  family  had  resided  there  for  five  generations. 
Dr.  Morrison  met  with  another  near  Nanking,  hold- 
ing a  government  office,  who  said  that  his  sect 
reached  Cliina  during  the  Tang  dynasty,  or  about 
the  period  of  the  visit  of  those  two  Arabians  whom 
we  have  already  noticed,  in  the  ninth  century.  The 
same  individual  stated,  that  at  Kae-foong-foo,  in  the 
province  of  Honan,  there  were  some  families  of  a 
persuasion  denominated  by  the  Chinese,  "the  sect 
that  plucks  out  the  sinew ;"  these,  in  all  probability, 
must  be  the  Jews  mentioned  by  Grosier,  who  are 


24  THE  CHINESE. 

said  to  have  reached  China  as  early  as  200  years 
before  Christ,  in  the  time  of  the  Han  dynasty. 

In  the  eighteenth  vokime  of  the  Lettres  ^dijiantes 
et  curieuses,  there  is  contained  an  account  of  the 
pains  taken  by  the  Jesuits  in  China  to  investigate 
the  origin  of  this  remarkable  colony  of  Jews  at 
Kae-foong-foo.  The  most  successful  in  his  re- 
searches w^as  Pere  Gozani,  who,  in  a  letter  dated 
1704,  thus  wrote  : — "As  regards  those  who  are  here 
called  Tiao-kin-kiao  (the  sect  that  extracts  the 
sinew),  two  years  ago  I  was  going  to  visit  them, 
under  the  expectation  that  they  were  Jews,  and 
with  the  hope  of  finding  among  them  the  Old  Tes- 
tament ;  but  as  I  have  no  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  and  met  with  great  difficulties,  I  aban- 
doned this  scheme  with  the  fear  of  not  succeeding. 
Nevertheless,  as  you  told  me  that  I  should  oblige 
you  by  obtaining  any  information  concerning  this 
people,  I  have  obeyed  your  directions,  and  executed 
them  with  all  the  care  and  exactness  of  which  I  was 
capable.  I  immediately  made  them  protestations 
of  friendship,  to  which  they  readily  replied,  and  had 
the  civility  to  come  to  see  me.  I  returned  their 
visit  in  the  le-pai-sou,  that  is,  in  their  synagogue, 
where  they  were  all  assembled,  and  where  I  held 
with  them  long  conversations.  I  saw  their  inscrip- 
tions, some  of  which  are  in  Chinese,  and  the  rest  in 
their  own  language.  They  showed  me  their  reli- 
gious books,  and  permitted  me  to  enter  even  into 
the  most  secret  place  of  their  synagogue,  whence 
they  themselves  (the  commonalty)  are  excluded. 
There  is  a  place  reserved  for  the  chief  of  the 
synagogue,  who  never  enters  there  except  with 
profound  respect.  They  told  me  that  their  ances- 
tors came  from  a  kingdom  of  the  west,  called  the 
kingdom  of  Juda,  which  Joshua  conquered  after 
having  departed  from  Egypt,  and  passed  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Desert ;  that  the  number  of  Jews  who 
migrated  from  Egypt  was  about  600,000  men.    They 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     25 

assured  me  that  their  alphabet  had  twenty-seven 
letters,  but  that  they  commonly  made  use  of  only 
twenty-two ;  which  accords  with  the  declaration  of 
St.  Jerome,  that  the  Hebrew  has  twenty-two  letters, 
of  which  five  are  double.  When  they  read  the 
Bible  in  their  synagogue,  they  cover  the  face  with 
a  transparent  veil,  in  memory  of  Moses,  who  de- 
scended from  the  mountain  with  his  face  covered, 
and  who  thus  published  the  Decalogue  and  the  Law 
of  God  to  his  people :  they  read  a  section  every  Sab- 
bath-day. Thus  the  Jews  of  China,  like  the  Jews 
of  Europe,  read  all  the  Law  in  the  course  of  the 
year  :  he  who  reads  places  the  Ta-king  (great  sacred 
book)  on  the  chair  of  Moses ;  he  has  his  face  cov- 
ered with  a  very  thin  cotton  veil ;  at  his  side  is  a 
prompter,  and  some  paces  below  a  moula,  to  correct 
the  prompter  should  he  err.  They  spoke  to  me 
respecting  Paradise  and  Hell  in  a  very  foolish  way. 
There  is  every  appearance  of  what  they  said  being 
drawn  from  the  Talmud.  I  spoke  to  them  of  the 
Messiah  promised  in  Scripture,  but  they  were  very 
much  surprised  at  what  I  said ;  and  when  I  informed 
them  that  his  name  was  Jesus,  they  replied,  that 
mention  was  made  in  the  Bible  of  a  holy  man  named 
Jesus,  who  was  the  son  of  Sirach :  but  they  knew 
not  the  Jesus  of  whom  I  spoke."* 

The  first  pope  who  appears  to  have  sent  a  mis- 
sion for  the  conversion  of  the  Tartars  or  Chinese 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith,  was  Innocent  IV. 
He  despatched  Giovanni  Carpini,  a  monk,  through 
Russia,  in  the  year  1246,  to  Baatu  Khan,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Volga,  from  whence  they  were  con- 
ducted to  the  Mongol  Tartar  court,  just  as  the 
Great  Khan  was  about  to  be  installed.  Carpini  was 
astonished  by  the  display  of  immense  treasures, 
and,  having  been  kindly  treated,  was  sent  back  with 

»  For  farther  particulars  of  the  .lews  in  China,  see  Chinese 
Repository,  vol.  iii.,  p.  172. 
Vol.  I.— C 


26'  I'HE  CHINE  SET. 

a  friendly  letter ;  he  was  rather  pleased  than  scaiv 
dalized  by  the  near  resemblance  of  the  rites  of  the 
Chinese  Buddhists  to  the  forms  of  Catholic  worship, 
and  inferred  from  thence  that  they  either  already 
were,  or  would  very  soon  be,  Christians.  In  1253 
Rubruqiris  was  in  like  manner  despatched  by  St. 
Louis,  during  his  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  with 
directions  to  procure  the  friendship  of  the  Mongols- 
He  reached  at  length  the  court  of  the  Great  Khan, 
where,  like  his  predecessor,  he  observed  the  near 
resemblance  of  Lama  worship  to  the  forms  of 
Roman  Catholicism,  and  concluded  that  it  must  be 
derived  from  a  spurious  Christianity ;  perhaps  that 
of  the  Nestorians. 

It  is  needless  in  this  place  to  enter  into  any  de 
tailed  notice  of  the  work  of  Marco  Polo,  which  has 
been  illustrated  with  so  much  erudition  and  industry 
by  our  countryman  Marsden.  The  doubts  which 
were  once  entertained  of  the  veracity  of  Marco  have 
long  since  given  way  to  admiration  of  his  simple 
and  faithful  narrative.  Most  of  our  readers  will 
perhaps  be  aware,  that  in  the  reign  of  Coblai  Khan, 
the  Mongol  conqueror  of  China,  Nicholas  and  Mat- 
thew Paolo  or  Polo,  two  noble  Venetians,  reached 
his  court :  they  were  extremely  well  received,  and 
invited  to  return  to  China  on  their  departure  for 
Europe.  In  1274  they  accordingly  came  back,  bear- 
ing letters  from  Pope  Gregory  X.,  and  accompanied 
by  young  Marco,  son  to  one  of  them.  The  youth, 
by  his  talents  and  good  conduct,  became  a  favourite 
with  the  khan,  and  was  employed  by  him  for  seven- 
teen years,  after  which  he  Avith'some  difficulty 
obtained  permission  to  return  to  his  own  country. 
The  accounts  which  he  gave  at  Venice  of  the  vast 
wealth  and  resources  of  the  Chinese  empire,  ap- 
peared so  incredible  to  Europeans  in  those  days, 
that  his  tale  was  most  undeservedly  discredited; 
and  he  obtained  the  nickname  of  "  Messer  Marco 
Millione."    Another  account  of  Cathay  or  China  waa 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     27 

some  time  after  written  by  Hay  ton,  an  Armenian, 
and  translated  into  Latin.  According  to  him,  the 
Chinese  considered  the  rest  of  the  world  as  blind, 
or  seeing  with  only  one  eye;  while  themselves 
alone  were  blessed  with  a  perfect  vision. 

John  De  Corvino,  despatched  to  Asia  in  1288  by 
Pope  Nicholas  IV.,  was  the  first  successful  promo- 
ter of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  in  China  :  he  arrived 
at  Cambalu  (as  Peking  was  called  by  the  Tartars), 
and  met  with  a  kind  reception  from  the  emperor, 
notwithstanding  the  hostility  of  the  jealous  Nesto- 
rians.  He  was  allowed  to  build  a  church,  furnished 
with  a  steeple  and  bells,  and  is  said  to  have  baptized 
some  thousands  of  converts,  as  well  as  to  have  in- 
structed mimbers  of  children  in  the  Latin  language^ 
and  the  tenets  of  Christianity.  The  news  of  his 
progress  readied  Clement  V.  on  his  accession  to 
the  popedom,  and  he  was  immediately  appointed 
Bishop  of  Cambalu,  with  a  numerous  body  of  priests, 
who  were  despatched  to  join  him  in  his  labours.  On 
the  death  of  Corvino,  however,  it  is  probable  that 
no  successor,  possessed  of  the  same  enterprise  and 
industry,  was  ready  to  succeed  him  ;  for  the  estab- 
lishment which  he  had  founded  appears  to  have 
ceased,  or  at  least  sunk  into  insignificance. 

Abundant  evidence  is  afforded  by  Chinese  records, 
that  a  much  more  liberal  as  well  as  enterprising  dis- 
position once  existed  in  respect  to  foreign  inter- 
course than  prevails  at  present.  It  was  only  on  the 
conquest  of  the  empire  by  the  Manchows  that  the 
European  trade  was  limited  to  Canton  ;  and  the 
jealous  and  watchful  Tartar  dominion,  established 
by  this  handful  of  barbarians,  has  unquestionably 
occasioned  many  additional  obstacles  to  an  increased 
commerce  with  the  rest  of  the  world.  We  have 
already  noticed  the  Chinese  junks,  wliichw^ere  seen 
by  Ibn  Batuta  as  far  west  as  the  coast  of  Malabar, 
about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Even  be- 
fore th.e   seventh  century,  it   appears  from  native 


28  THE   CHINESE. 

records  that  missions  were  sent  from  China  to  the 
surrounding  nations,  with  a  view  to  inviting  mutual 
intercourse.  The  benefits  of  industry  and  trade 
have  always  been  extolled  by  the  people  of  that 
country ;  the  contempt,  therefore,  with  which  the 
present  Tartar  government  affects  to  treat  the  Eu- 
ropean commerce,  must  be  referred  entirely  to  the 
fears  which  it  entertains  regarding  the  influence  of 
increased  knowledge  on  the  stability  of  its  dominion. 

According  to  the  Chinese  books,  commerce,  on 
its  first  establishment  at  Canton,  remained  free  from 
duties  for  many  years,  but  its  increasing  importance 
soon  led  the  officers  of  government  to  convert  it 
into  a  source  of  gain.  As  in  Siam  and  Cochin-china 
at  present,  the  pre-emption  of  all  imported  goods 
seems  at  one  time  to  have  been  claimed  ;  but  this 
did  not  last  long,  and  the  trade,  after  having  con- 
tinued to  increase  at  Canton,  was  subsequently  car- 
ried to  other  ports  of  the  empire.  The  endeavour  to 
prevent  the  exportation  of  silver  appears  to  have 
been  an  error  very  early  established ;  but  the  regu- 
lations on  this  subject,  as  might  be  expected,  have 
always  been  as  futile  as  they  are  at  the  present  day. 

It  was  not  many  years  after  the  passage  of  the 
Cape  by  De  Gama,  that  the  Portuguese  in  1516 
made  their  first  appearance  at  Canton.  Their  early 
conduct  was  not  calculated  to  impress  the  Chinese 
with  any  favourable  idea  of  Europeans  •  and  when, 
in  course  of  time,  they  came  to  be  competitors 
with  the  Dutch  and  the  English,  the  contests  of 
mercantile  avarice  tended  to  place  them  all  in  a  still 
worse  point  of  view.  To  this  day  the  character  of 
Europeans  is  represented  as  that  of  a  race  of  men 
intent  alone  on  the  gains  of  commercial  traffic,  and 
regardless  altogether  of  the  means  of  attainment. 
Struck  by  the  perpetual  hostilities  which  existed 
among  these  foreign  adventurers,  assimilated  in 
other  respects  by  a  close  resemblance  in  their  cos- 
tumes and  manners,  the  government  of  the  country 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.      29 

became  disposed  to  treat  them  with  a  degree  of 
jealousy  and  exclusion  which  it  had  not  deemed 
necessary  to  be  exercised  towards  the  more  peace- 
able and  well-ordered  Arabs,  their  predecessors. 

The  first  places  of  resort  to  the  Portuguese  were 
the  islands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Canton  river.*  The 
vessel  despatched  by  Alfonzo  Albuquerque,  the 
Captain-general  of  Malacca,  reached  one  of  these, 
under  the  command  of  Perestrello,  and,  as  his  voy- 
age proved  very  successful,  it  had  the  effect  of  en- 
gaging others  in  similar  enterprises.  Being  distin- 
guished as  the  first  person  who  ever  conducted  a 
ship  to  China  under  a  European  flag,  he  was  followed 
in  the  ensuing  year  by  a  fleet  of  eight  vessels,  under 
the  command  of  Perez  de  Andrade,  who,  on  reach- 
ing the  coast,  was  surrounded  by  junks  of  war,  and 
his  movements  watched  with  suspicion.  He  was, 
however,  permitted  to  proceed  with  two  of  his  ves- 
sels to  Canton ;  and,  while  successfully  negotiating 
for  a  trade,  received  accounts  that  the  remainder  of 
his  fleet  had  been  attacked  by  pirates.  Some  of  his 
vessels  returned  with  cargoes  to  Malacca ;  the  re- 
mainder sailed  in  company  with  some  junks,  belong- 
ing to  the  Loo-choo  islands,  for  the  province  of 
Fokien  on  the  east  coast,  and  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing a  colony  at  Ningpo.  The  Portuguese  sub- 
sequently brought  their  families  to  that  port,  carry- 
ing on  a  gainful  trade  with  other  parts  of  China,  as 
well  as  with  Japan.  But  in  the  year  1545  the  pro- 
vincial government,  provoked  by  their  ill  conduct, 
expelled  them  the  place ;  and  thus  was  for  ever  lost 
to  them  an  establishment  on  the  continent  of  China, 
in  one  of  the  provinces  of  the  empire  best  adapted 
to  the  ends  of  European  trade.  The  general  beha- 
viour of  the  Portuguese  had,  from  the  first,  been 

*  We  here  quotf ,  for  convenience,  from  a  small  work  printed 
8t  Macao  in  1831,  but  never  regularly  published,  called  "The 
Canton  Miscellanv." 

02 


30  THE   CHINESE. 

calculated  to  obliterate  the  favourable  impression 
which  the  Chinese  had  received  from  the  justice 
and  moderation  of  Perez  de  Andrade.  Only  shortly 
after  his  visit,  a  squadron,  under  the  orders  of  his 
brother  Simon,  M^as  engaged  in  open  hostilities, 
having  established  a  colony  at  San  Shan,  near  Macao 
(vulgarly  called  St.  John's),  and  erected  a  fort  there  : 
they  were  finally  defeated  by  a  Chinese  naval  force, 
but  continued  to  commit  acts  of  piracy  on  the  native 
trading-vessels.  Subsequently  to  this  career  of 
violence,  and  dining  the  more  recent  periods  of 
their  connexion  with  China  at  Macao,  the  Portu- 
guese appear,  on  the  other  hand,  to  have  entertained 
too  extreme  an  apprehension  of  giving  umbrage  to 
the  native  government ;  and  while  they  imagined 
they  were  securing  favour  to  themselves,  their  con- 
duct has  often  served  to  encourage  Chinese  en- 
croachment. 

Among  the  early  and  desperate  adventurers  from 
Portugal,  the  exploits  of  Ferdinand  Mendes  Pinto 
have,  by  the  help  of  some  exaggeration,  handed  his 
name  down  as  one  of  the  principal.  Having  arrived 
with  a  crew  of  other  desperadoes  at  Ningpo,  he 
learned  from  some  Chinese  that  to  the  northeast 
there  was  an  island  containing  the  tombs  of  seven- 
teen Chinese  kings,  full  of  treasure.  Pinto  and  his 
companions  succeeded  in  finding  the  place,  and 
plundered  the  tombs,  in  which  they  found  a  quantity 
of  silver:  being  attacked,  they  were  obliged  to  retire 
with  only  part  of  the  booty;  and  a  gale  having 
overtaken  them  upon  their  return,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Nanking,  only  fourteen  Portuguese  escaped 
with  their  lives  :  these  were  taken  by  the  Chinese, 
and  after  some  maltreatment  were  sent  to  Nanking, 
and  condemned  to  be  whipped,  and  to  lose  each  man 
a  thumb.  They  were  next  conducted  to  Peking,  and 
on  his  way  thither  Pinto  had  occasion  to  admire  the 
manners  of  the  Chinese,  their  love  of  justice,  and  the 
good  order  and  industry  that  prevailed  among  them. 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     31 

Arrived  at  Peking,  they  were  at  length  condemned 
to  one  year's  hard  labour ;  but,  before  the  time  ex- 
pired, they  were  set  at  liberty  by  the  Tartars,  who 
were  then  invading  the  country.  Pinto  and  his  com- 
panions now  joined  their  liberators,  and,  while  in 
their  service,  saw  one  of  the  chief  lamas,  whom 
he  called  their  pope.  A  curious  description  of  this 
Tartar  hierarchy  has  in  later  times  been  given  by 
Pere  Gaubil.  The  Portuguese  adventurers  at  length 
quitted  the  Tartars,  found  their  way  to  the  coast, 
and  embarked  again  for  Ningpo.  Being  treacher- 
ously abandoned  on  a  desolate  island,  where  they 
had  almost  died  of  hunger,  Pinto  and  his  companions 
were  taken  off  by  a  pirate,  and  soon  afterward  driven 
by  adverse  winds  on  the  coast  of  Japan.  On  his 
return  to  Ningpo,  this  adventurer  gave  his  country- 
men so  favourable  an  account  of  what  he  had  seen, 
that  a  large  expedition  was  fitted  out  for  Japan  : 
several,  however,  of  the  vessels  were  lost,  and 
Pinto  himself  driven  on  the  Loo-choo  islands,  where 
he  and  his  companions  were  taxed  with  the  murder 
of  some  natives  of  Loo-choo,  at  the  time  when 
Malacca  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese.  The  king 
being  told  that  all  his  countrymen  were  pirates, 
gave  orders  that  Pinto  and  the  rest  should  be  quar- 
tered, and  their  hmbs  exposed:  they  were  saved, 
however,  by  the  interposition  of  some  native  wo- 
men, and  Pinto  at  length  returned  to  Malacca.  He 
afterward  engaged  in  a  mission  to  Japan.  It  was 
about  the  same  time,  in  1552,  that  the  famous  apos- 
tle of  the  East,  St.  Francis  Xavier,  concerning 
whom  so  many  miracles  have  been  related,  died  at 
San-shan,  or  St.  John's.  The  remains  of  his  tomb 
are  seen  there  at  this  day ;  and  the  Bishop  of  Macao 
used  to  make  an  annual  visit  there,  for  the  purpose 
of  celebrating  mass,  and  bringing  away  a  portion  of 
the  consecrated  earth. 

The  first  Portuguese  embassy,  and  of  course  the 
first  from  any  European  power  by  sea,  to  Peking, 


32  THE  CHINESE. 

took  place  as  early  as  1520,  in  the  person  of  Thomas 
Pirez,  the  object  being  to  establish  a  factory  at 
Canton  as  well  as  at  Macao.  Advices,  however, 
had  preceded  him  of  the  ill  conduct  and  violence  of 
Simon  de  Andrade ;  and,  after  a  course  of  humilia- 
tion, the  unfortunate  Pirez  Avas  sent  back  under 
custody  to  Canton,  the  provincial  government  of 
which  place  thus  early  showed  its  jealousy  of  any 
attempt  on  the  part  of  strangers  to  communicate 
with  the  court.  Pirez,  on  his  arrival,  was  robbed 
of  his  property,  thrown  into  prison,  and  ultimately, 
it  is  supposed,  put  to  death.  The  various  embassies 
which  have  since  followed  in  three  successive  cen- 
turies to  Peking,  have  met  with  different  kinds  of 
treatment ;  but,  in  whatever  spint  conducted,  they 
have  been  equally  unsuccessful  in  the  attainment  of 
any  important  points  of  negotiation. 

In  the  following  year  Alfonso  de  Melo  arrived  in 
China,  ignorant  of  the  events  which  had  taken  place, 
and  having  altogether  six  vessels  under  his  com- 
mand. "These,"  a  Portuguese  writer  observes, 
"sent  on  shore  for  water,  but  returned  with  blood." 
They  became  immediately  involved  in  conflicts 
with  the  Chinese,  who  put  to  death  upwards  of 
twenty  prisoners  that  fell  into  their  hands ;  and  the 
squadron  shortly  afterward  sailed  away  from  China. 

We  have  seen  already  that,  previous  to  the  arri- 
val of  Europeans  on  its  shores,  the  government  of 
the  country  had  given  every  encouragement  to 
foreign  commerce,  and  that,  at  a  very  early  period, 
Chinese  junks  had  proceeded  to  the  coasts  of  the 
peninsula  of  India.  Statistical  records  exist  to  the 
present  day,  having  reference  to  foreign  intercourse, 
which  display  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  advan- 
tages of  trade,  and  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
indifference  which  the  present  Tartar  government 
affects  to  feel  towards  it.  Subsequent  to  a  tempo- 
rary prohibition  of  foreign  trade,  a  certain  Fooyuen 
of  Canton  thus  addressed  the  emperor  : — "  A  groat 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     33 

part  of  the  necessary  expenses  of  both  the  govern- 
ment and  the  people  of  Canton  is  snpphed  by  the 
customs  levied  on  merchants ;  and  if  foreign  sliips 
do  not  come,  both  public  and  private  concerns  are 
thrown  into  much  embarrassment  and  distress.  It 
is  entreated,  therefore,  that  the  Franks  be  permitted 
to  trade.  Three  or  four  advantages  result  therefrom. 
In  the  first  place,  besides  the  regular  tribute  of  the 
several  foreign  states,  a  small  per  centage  has  been 
taken  from  the  remainder,  adequate  to  the  supply  of 
the  provincial  expenditure.  Secondly,  the  treasury 
appropriated  for  the  annual  supply  of  the  army  in 
Canton  and  Quong-sy  is  entirely  drained,  and  our 
dependance  is  on  trade  to  provide  against  exigencies. 
Thirdly,  the  contiguous  province  has  looked  to 
Canton  for  supplies,  being  unable  to  comply  with 
any  demands  made  on  it ;  but  when  foreign  ships 
have  free  intercourse,  then  high  and  low  are  all  mu- 
tually supphed.  Fourthly,  the  people  live  by  com- 
merce. A  man  holding  a  quantity  of  goods  sells 
them,  and  procures  what  himself  requires  :  thus 
things  pass  from  hand  to  hand,  and  in  their  course 
supply  men  with  food  and  raiment.  The  govern- 
ment is  thereby  assisted,  the  people  enriched,  and 
both  have  means  afforded  them  on  which  they  may 
depend."  Admissions  of  a  similar  nature,  of  a  very 
late  date,  contained  in  addresses  from  the  provincial 
government  to  Peking,  have  proved  that  the  Chinese 
authorities  are  by  no  means  unmindful  of  the  reve- 
nues derived  from  the  E^uropean  trade. 

It  was  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  the  Portuguese  established  themselves  at  Ma- 
cao, the  only  European  colony  that,  with  very  lim- 
ited success,  has  been  planted  on  the  coast  of  China ; 
it  seems  that  they  had  temporary  shelter  on  shore 
as  early  as  1537.  By  bribery  and  sohcitation,  leave 
was  obtained  for  erecting  sheds  to  dry  goods,  which 
were  introduced  under  the  name  of  tribute.  The 
foreigners  were  by  degrees  permitted  to  build  sub- 


34  THE    CHINESE. 

stantial  houses,  and  the  petty  mandarins  connived 
at  an  increasing  population,  the  estabUshment  of  an 
internal  government,  and  the  influx  of  priests,  with 
their  endeavours  to  convert  the  Chinese.*  The  sto- 
ry of  important  services  rendered  against  pirates, 
and  an  imperial  edict,  transferring  the  dominion  of 
Macao  to  the  Portuguese,  seems  unfounded.  In- 
deed, a  bishop  of  Macao  wrote,  in  1777,  that  it  was 
"  by  paying  a  ground-rent  that  the  Portuguese  ac- 
quired the  temporary  use  and  profit  of  Macao  ad  nu- 
tum  of  the  emperor."  This  gi'ound-rent,  amounting 
to  500  taels  per  annum,  is  regularly  paid  to  the 
present  day ;  and  Chinese  mandarins  periodically 
inspect  the  Portuguese  forts,  as  well  as  levy  duties 
on  the  Macao  shipping.  Nothing,  therefore,  can  be 
farther  from  the  truth,  than  that  the  Portuguese 
possess  the  sovereignty  of  that  place.  In  1573  the 
Chinese  erected  a  barrier-wall  across  the  isthmus, 
which  separates  Macao  from  the  Island  of  Heang- 
shan.  A  civil  mandarin  was  very  early  appointed 
to  reside  within  the  town,  and  govern  it  in  the  name 
of  the  Emperor  of  China  :  this  officer,  called  a  Tso- 
tang,  keeps  a  watchful  eye  on  the  inhabitants,  and 
communicates  information  to  his  superiors.  The 
Portuguese  are  not  allowed  to  build  new  churches 
or  houses  without  a  license.  The  only  privilege 
they  possess  is  that  of  governing  themselves ;  while 
the  Chinese  population  of  the  town  is  entirely  un- 
der the  control  of  the  mandarins.  The  Spaniards, 
indiscriminately  with  the  Portuguese,  have  the  right 
of  trading  to  Macao ;  but  the  number  of  shipping 
was,  in  1725,  by  an  order  from  the  emperor,  re- 
stricted to  twenty-five,  and  it  is  actually  not  much 
more  than  half  that  number.  The  last  emperor  of 
the   last  Chinese  dynasty  sent  to  Macao  for  some 

*  A  small  compilation  of  ancient  records  concerning  Macao 
was  printed  by  a  Swedish  gentleman,  long  resident  there,  in 
1832,  and  from  him  we  derive  our  notes. 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     35 

guns,  and  a  small  military  force,  against  the  Man- 
chow  Tartars  ;  but  in  1651  the  inhabitants  of  that 
colony  were  enrolled  as  the  subjects  of  the  present 
Ta-tsing  family.  In  1809,  when  the  ludrones,  or 
native  pirates,  had  become  formidable  to  the  Chi- 
nese government,  Macao  furnished  by  agreement 
six  vessels  to  serve  against  them,  at  a  charge  of 
80,000  taels  to  the  provincial  government.  The  pi- 
rates were  induced  by  other  means  than  those  of 
force  to  dissolve  their  confederation,  and  the  Por- 
tuguese, although  they  claimed  certain  privileges 
for  their  services,  were  obliged  to  remain  content 
with  their  former  condition. 

The  advantages  which  Macao  possesses  over 
Canton,  in  respect  to  the  Chinese  duties,  which  are 
considerably  less  at  the  former  place  than  at  the 
latter,  might  perhaps  be  made  available,  to  a  certain 
extent,  by  British  traders.  The  capital  and  enter- 
prise of  the  Portuguese  inhabitants  are  not  suffi- 
cient to  employ  the  few  ships  which  they  actually 
possess.  Several  of  the  vessels  are  freighted  in 
part  by  the  Chinese  for  the  Malay  peninsula  and 
islands.  Although  the  freight  is  much  higher  than 
in  junks,  the  property  on  board  is  considered  so 
much  safer — and  the  Chinese  do  not  practise  ensu- 
rance.  They  frequently  send  adventures,  too,  on 
board  English  country  ships,  or  those  pertaining  to 
the  Indian  trade  ;  for  there  is  a  duty  amounting  to 
10  per  cent,  additional  charged  on  Portuguese  ships 
at  our  Eastern  presidencies.  The  trade  of  Macao 
is  altogether  in  a  very  depressed  state,  and  the 
whole  income  from  customs,  which  amounted  in 
1830  to  scarcely  70,000  taels,  is  insufficient  to  meet 
the  expenditure.  The  entire  Portuguese  popula- 
tion, including  slaves,  is  not  above  5000;  while  the 
Chinese  of  Macao  are  calculated  to  exceed  30,000. 

It  seem«  needless  to  notice  the  several  fruitless 
embassies  which  the  Portuguese,  since  their  earlier 
resort  to  China,  have  sent  to  Peking,  the  last  of 


36  THE    CHINESE. 

which  occurred  in  1753  :  they  exhibit  the  usual 
spectacle  of  arrogance  on  the  one  side,  and  profit- 
less submission  on  the  other.  It  will  be  more  in- 
teresting to  take  a  short  view  of  the  Catholic  mis- 
sions, which  at  first  promised  to  make  rapid  and 
extensive  progress,  but  were  ultimatelj'-  defeated 
by  the  dissensions  among  the  several  orders  of 
priests,  and  the  indiscreet  zeal  which  some  of  them 
displayed  against  the  ancient  institutions  of  the  Chi- 
nese. In  1579  Miguel  Ruggiero,  an  Italian  Jesuit, 
reached  Canton,  and  in  a  few  years  was  joined  by 
Matthew  Ricci,  who  may  justly  be  considered  as 
the  founder  of  the  Catholic  mission.  The  literati 
of  the  country  praised  such  of  the  precepts  of 
Christianity  as  coincided  with  those  of  Confucius  ; 
but  they  found  a  stumbling-block  in  the  doctrines, 
of  original  sin,  of  eternal  torments,  of  the  incarna- 
tion, of  the  Trinity,  and  of  not  being  allowed  con- 
cubines as  well  as  a  wife.  No  difficulties,  howev- 
er, could  dishearten  Ricci,  who,  by  his  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  mathematical  and  experimental 
sciences,  had  the  means  of  making  friends  and  con- 
verts. He  soon  abandoned  the  garb  of  a  bonze, 
which  he  at  first  injudiciously  assumed,  and  put  on 
that  of  the  literati.  With  great  good  sense  he  saw 
the  folly  of  attempting  at  once  to  contend  with 
those  prejudices  of  the  Chinese  which  were  blend- 
ed with  such  of  their  institutions  as  they  consider- 
ed most  sacred,  and  which  in  fact  formed  the  very 
foundations  of  their  social  system.  Montesquieu  has 
justly  argued,  from  the  peculiar  character  of  the 
Chinese  customs,  against  the  facility  of  introducing 
material  changes  in  them  ;  and  especially  of  substi- 
tuting the  Roman  Catholic  observances.  The  as- 
sembling of  women  in  churches,  their  private  com- 
munication with  priests,  the  prohibition  of  offerings 
at  the  tombs  of  parents,  were  all  abominations  in 
their  eyes  which  could  never  be  endured.  Ricci, 
for  such  reasons,  made  a  distinction  between  civil 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     37 

and  sacred  rites,  admitting  the  former  in  his  con- 
verts, and  particularly  the  ceremonies  at  tombs  ; 
and  his  success  accordingly  was  considerable. 

When  he  had  passed  about  seventeen  years  in  the 
country,  Ricci  proceeded  to  Peking,  and  by  favour 
of  one  of  the  eunuchs  of  the  palace  became  intro- 
duced to  the  emperor's  notice,  his  presents  being 
received,  and  a  place  appointed  for  his  residence. 
Other  Jesuits  joined  the  mission,  and  established 
themselves  at  different  points  from  Canton  to  Pe- 
king, proceeding  quietly,  and  with  great  success,  as 
long  as  they  could  remain  unmolested  by  the  hot 
and  indiscreet  zeal  of  the  several  orders  of  monks, 
who,  in  their  haste  to  attack  the  Chinese  prejudices, 
ensured  their  own  discomfiture.  The  most  distin- 
guished of  the  Jesuits,  for  his  talents  and  knowledge, 
was  Father  Adam  Schaal,  by  birth  a  German  :  he 
reached  Peking  at  the  time  when  the  last  Chinese 
dynasty  of  Ming  was  about  to  be  expelled  by  the 
Manchow  Tartars.  Through  the  influence  of  a 
Chinese  Christian  named  Paul  Siu,  who  was  a  co- 
lao,  or  principal  minister,  and  by  his  own  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  physical  sciences,  Schaal  became 
a  great  favourite  at  court,  and  even  retained  his 
place  after  the  Tartars  had  possessed  themselves 
of  the  empire.  The  first  Manchow  emperor,  Shun- 
chy,  to  w  horn  he  easily  proved  the  ignorance  of  the 
Arabian  mathematicians,  made  him  President  of 
the  Astronomical  Board  ;  and  his  own  merits  are  a 
sufficient  explanation  of  his  success,  without  any 
need  of  the  lying  miracle  with  which  Pere  Du  Halde 
has  not  blushed  to  disfigure  his  work.  According 
to  him,  Adam  Schaal  being  condemned  to  death 
soon  after  the  Tartar  conquest,  "  this  sentence  was 
carried  to  the  princes  of  the  blood  and  to  the  regent 
for  confirmation  ;  but,  as  often  as  they  attempted 
to  read  it,  a  dreadful  earthquake  dispersed  the  as- 
sembly. The  consternation  was  so  great,  that  they 
granted  a  general  pardon  ;  all  the  prisoners  were 

Vol.  I.—D. 


38  THE    CHINESE. 

released  except  Father  Adara,  and  he  did  not  get 
his  Uberty  until  a  month  afterward,  when  the  royal 
palace  was  consumed  by  the  flames." 

Permission  was  given  to  the  Jesuits  to  build  two 
churches  at  Peking,  and  new  labourers  were  allow- 
ed to  enter  the  country :  among  these,  Ferdinand 
Verbiest,  another  German  Jesuit,  and  a  man  of  dis- 
tinguished science,  became  the  coadjutor  of  Adam 
Schaal.  On  the  accession  of  Kanghy,  then  a  boy 
of  eight  or  nine  years  of  age,  under  the  tutorship 
of  four  Tartars,  the  disputes  which  ensued  with  the 
intolerant  Dominicans  produced  an  unfavourable 
impression  on  the  minds  of  the  rulers  of  China. 
Accusations  were  preferred  against  the  mission- 
aries, and  their  zeal  to  make  converts  was  con- 
demned as  dangerous.  It  is  said  that  Schaal  died 
of  chagrin,  and  that  Verbiest  Avas  compelled  for 
some  time  to  abscond.  When  Kanghy,  however,  a 
monarch  of  enlarged  and  liberal  mind,  came  to  exer- 
cise the  government  in  his  own  person,  Verbiest  was 
made  President  of  the  Astronomers,  and  through 
his  influence  the  expelled  missionaries  were  allow- 
ed to  return  to  their  churches.  By  the  aid  of  Ver- 
biest, the  emperor  was  enabled  to  cast  guns,  and  to 
compose  a  mathematical  work,  with  tables  of  loga- 
rithms. During  this  reign,  although  the  emperor 
was  never  himself  a  convert,  the  state  of  Christian- 
ity in  China  was  vastly  more  flourishing  than  it  is 
at  present,  after  the  lapse  of  a  century  and  a  half  : 
it  was  placed  by  Kanghy  on  the  same  footing  of 
toleration  with  Mahometanism  and  Buddhism.  In 
the  itineraries  of  Le  Compte  and  other  Jesuits, 
churches  with  European  priests  are  mentioned  at 
almost  every  principal  city.  At  Foshan,  about  four 
leagues  above  Canton,  Pere  Bouvet  speaks  of  a 
Milanese  Jesuit  as  presiding  over  a  church,  with  a 
flock  of "10,000  persons:  at  this  day  there  is  prob- 
ably nott)ne  single  individual  at  that  same  place. 

The  decree  of  Kanghy  in  1692,  pCTmitti.ng  the  ex- 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     39 

ercise  of  Christianity,  was  abrogated  by  his  succes- 
sor Yoong-ching,  who  expelled  the  missionaries 
from  the  provinces.  Th^se  spiritual  delegates, 
meanwhile,  had  been  in  constant  collision  with  the 
native  authorities  throughout  the  empire,  and  per- 
petually at  strife  among  themselves  ;  and  the  juris- 
diction of  the  field  which  they  occupied  became 
also  a  subject  of  discussion  between  the  kings  of 
Portugal  and  the  popes.  In  consequence  of  the 
disputes  which  had  arisen,  from  a  very  early  period, 
among  the  Jesuits  and  the  other  orders  concerning 
Chinese  rites  and  ceremonies,  Matthew  Ricci  had 
drawn  up  for  the  mission  a  number  of  rules,  in 
which  he  considered  the  objectionable  customs  as 
merely  civil  and  secular.  Morales,  however,  a 
Spanish  Dominican,  declared  them  to  be  idolatrous, 
and  as  such  they  were  condemned  by  Innocent  X. 
Martinez,  a  Jesuit,  subsequently  proved  that  these 
rites  were  of  a  civil  nature,  in  which  light  they 
came  to  be  allowed  by  Alexander  V^II. :  thus  two 
opposite  opinions  were  sanctioned  by  papal  infalli- 
bility. 

Notwithstanding  every  endeavour  made  by  the 
more  sensible  and  temperate  of  the  missionaries  to 
compromise  the  differences,  a  zealot  named  Carolus 
Maigrot,  soi-disant  bishop  of  some  Chinese  provin- 
ces, issued  a  mandate,  in  which,  unmindful  of  the 
decree  of  Alexander  VII.,  he  decided  that  Thien 
signified  only  the  visible  and  material  Heaven^  and 
that  the  Chinese  rites  were  idolatrous.  Kanghy 
himself,  in  1700,  declared  in  an  edict,  which  was 
transmitted  to  the  pope,  that  Thien  means  the  true 
God,  and  that  the  customs  enjoined  by  the  ritual  of 
China  were  of  a  political  character.  The  decision 
of  Maigrot,  however,  was  supported  and  confirmed 
by  a  decree  of  Clement  XI.  To  settle  disputes 
which  had  disgraced  the  Christian  cause  for  nearly 
a  century,  Tournon  was  despatched  as  apostolical 
7/icar  and  legate  to  China ;  but  this  selection  was  iiof 


40  THE    CHINESE. 

a  wise  one,  for  Mosheim  describes  Iiim  as  a  man 
"  whose  good  disposition  was  under  the  influence 
of  a  narrow  spirit  and  a  weak  understanding." 
Shortly  after  his  arrival,  in  1705,  having  received 
Pope  Clement's  decree,  he  issued  a  mandate,  that 
no  Chinese  Christian  should  ever  practise  the  cus- 
toms which  had  been  interdicted  by  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  !  The  Emperor  Kanghy,  justly  offended  with 
this  invasion  of  his  sovereignty,  promulged  an  edict, 
in  which  he  tolerated  the  missionaries  who  preached 
the  doctrine  of  Ricci,  but  declared  his  resolution  to 
persecute  those  who  followed  the  opinions  of  Mai- 
grot.  In  1720  the  patriarch  Mezzabarba  was  sent 
as  legate  from  Rome,  with  the  intention  of  carrying 
the  points  in  dispute ;  but  finding  Kanghy  determin- 
ed never  to  allow  the  pope  any  kind  of  jurisdiction 
over  his  own  subjects,  he  made  certain  temporary 
concessions,  with  a  view  to  saving  the  Roman  Cath- 
ohc  rehgion  from  the  disgrace  of  being  banished. 

At  length,  by  an  imperial  decree  of  Yoong-ching, 
in  1723,  these  disturbers  of  the  pubhc  peace  were 
formally  denounced.  A  few  monks  were  tolerated 
in  Peking,  a  few  remained  concealed  in  the  provin- 
ces, but  the  larger  number  were  driven  to  Macao, 
with  a  positive  injunction  to  leave  the  country  by 
the  first  ship.  The  more  enlightened  and  sensible 
Jesuits  had  acted  with  greater  moderation,  and  the 
influence  of  their  protectors  reconciled  them  with 
the  court.  Ignatius  Koegler  was  appointed  by  the 
emperor  President  of  the  Astronomical  Board,  with 
a  title  of  honour.  On  the  accession  of  Kienloong, 
in  1736,  his  hatred  of  the  mischievous  priests,  who 
were  labouring  in  secret  to  subvert  his  authority 
over  his  own  subjects,  led  him  to  seek  them  out 
with  increased  vigilance.  Many  of  them  were  de- 
tected in  disguise  in  almost  every  province  ;  these 
were  imprisoned,  and  their  converts  either  fled  or 
returned  to  their  duty.  To  mitigate  the  severity 
of  the  persecutions,  the  Jesuits  residing  at  Peking 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     41 

spared  neither  supplications  nor  bribes,  but  with  Ht- 
tie  effect,  until  the  decree  of  1785,  nearly  fifty  years 
after  Kienloong  first  came  to  the  throne,  released 
the  imprisoned  monks,  and  allowed  them  either  to 
join  their  brethren  at  Peking,  or  proceed  to  Europe. 
From  that  date  to  the  present  time  the  Roman 
Catholic  mission  has  been  in  a  declining  state,  and 
has  occasionally  had  to  suffer  renewals  of  persecu- 
tion. According  to  a  return  made  by  Pere  Mar- 
chini,  procurator  of  the  Propaganda  mission  at 
Macao,  the  actual  number  of  European  priests  in 
China,  in  1810,  was  tvventy-nin«,  with  about  200,000 
native  Christians.  Since  that  date  the  last  of  the 
Europeans  has  been  sent  away  from  Peking,  but  a 
few  still  continue  to  lurk  among  the  provinces. 

The  Spaniards,  although  they  possess  the  privi- 
lege of  trading  at  both  Macao  and  Canton,  as  well 
as  at  Amoy,  have  derived  less  advantage  from  an 
intercourse  with  China  than  most  other  nations, 
notwithstanding  the  vast  advantage  which  they 
possess  in  the  locahty  of  Manilla  and  the  Philip- 
pine islands,  within  a  few  days'  sail  of  China,  and 
approached  with  equal  facility  in  either  monsoon. 
It  has  been  suggested  that,  had  bonded  warehouses, 
with  a  system  of  drawbacks  on  re-exportation,  been 
established  at  Manilla,  one  half  of  the  trade  to  China 
might  be  centred  there  at  present.  The  heavy 
charges  and  vexatious  conduct  of  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment, together  with  the  close  monopoly  of  the 
Hong  merchants,  would  have  driven  many  a  ship 
from  Canton,  could  a  neighbouring  port  have  been 
found  with  a  supply  of  goods  in  case  of  need.  At 
present,  American  and  English  ships  often  find  it 
convenient  to  touch  at  Manilla  for  a  cargo  of  rice, 
by  the  importation  of  which  to  Canton  they  avoid 
the  heavy  port-charges ;  but,  so  ignorant  is  the 
Spanish  government  of  the  commonest  principles 
.of  political  economy,  that  rice  is  forbidden  to  be 
D  2 


42  THE    CHINESE. 

exported  from  Luconia  when  its  price  is  above  a 
certain  limit. 

The  Dutch  met  with  Httle  success  in  their  at- 
tempts to  open  a  trade  with  China  until  1624,  when, 
by  means  of  assistance  from  Batavia,  they  were 
enabled  to  form  a  settlement  on  the  west  side  of 
Formosa,  opposite  to  the  Chinese  coast.  The  vi- 
cinity of  this  to  Manilla  and  Macao  excited  the  jeal- 
ousy of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  as  well  as  of 
the  Chinese  government.  Liberty  of  trade  with  that 
empire  was  at  first  denied  them ;  but  the  Dutch 
annoyed  the  coast  with  their  ships,  until  it  was 
agreed  that,  on  their  evacuating  the  Pescadores, 
some  small  islands  between  the  mainland  and 
Formosa,  and  confining  themselves  to  the  latter, 
liberty  of  commerce  should  be  granted  them.  A 
fort  was  built  at  the  principal  harbour,  on  the  south- 
west side  of  the  island,  named  Fort  Zealand,  and 
measures  were  taken  to  civihze  and  reclaim  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  In  the  mean- 
while Peking  fell  a  prey  to  the  Manchow  Tartars, 
in  1644,  and  all  the  northern  provinces,  with  most 
of  the  southern,  acknowledged  in  a  short  time  the 
foreign  dominion.  Many  thousands  of  Chinese  fam- 
ilies emigrated  from  their  country  in  the  course  of 
the  struggle,  and  no  less  than  25,000  are  said  to  have 
transported  themselves  to  Formosa.  This  emigra- 
tion tended  greatly  to  the  improvement  of  that  new 
country,  and  was  at  first  encouraged  by  the  Dutch  : 
but  their  fears  were  alarmed  by  the  increasing 
numbers  when  they  could  no  longer  prevent  them ; 
and  the  influx  of  Chinese  was  a  principal  cause  of 
the  final  expulsion  of  the  Dutch  from  that  settle- 
ment. This  forms  an  episode  in  the  history  of  Eu- 
ropean intercourse  with  China,  deserving  of  some 
particular  notice;  and  we  shall  give  the  account 
nearly  as  it  stands  abridged  from  Nieuhoff,  in  the 
second  volume  of  the  Chinese  Repository.* 

*  Page  411. 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     43 

A  Chinese,  for  some  time  servant  to  the  Portu- 
guese at  Macao,  who  had  been  baptized  by  the  name 
of  Nicholaus,  grew  by  foreign  trade  to  be  the  richest 
merchant  in  the  country ;  and  when  the  Manchows 
invaded  the  empire,  he  equipped  at  his  own  ex- 
pense a  small  fleet  against  the  Tartars.  His  suc- 
cess attracted  a  vast  number  of  vessels,  until  he  at 
length  became  commander  of  a  very  formidable 
fleet.  After  several  battles,  he  was  invited  by  the 
Tartar  chief  to  Peking,  with  the  off"er  of  a  high 
title,  which  he  accepted,  leaving  the  command  of 
his  fleet  to  his  son  Kuo-shing,  called  in  Portuguese 
orthography  Koshinga.  The  father  was  not  per- 
mitted to  return,  but  the  son  continued  faithful  to 
the  Chinese  cause,  and  opposed  the  enemies  of  his 
country.  In  the  course  of  three  or  four  years, 
however,  the  Tartars,  by  force  or  bribery,  contrived 
to  drive  him  from  the  coast  to  the  numerous  islands 
in  the  vicinity ;  and  the  large  and  fertile  country 
of  Formosa,  now  inhabited  by  numerous  Chinese, 
became  the  object  of  his  hopes.  The  Dutch  were 
aware  that  the  secret  agents  of  Koshinga  held  a 
correspondence  with  the  resident  Chinese,  and, 
foreseeing  the  danger,  increased  the  garrison  of 
Fort  Zealand  in  1650.  They  still  remained  unmo- 
lested for  a  time,  until  the  exiled  leader,  being  de- 
feated before  Nanking,  had  no  refuge  left  for  him- 
self and  his  numerous  followers  except  Formosa. 
On  the  application  of  Coyet,  governor  of  the  settle- 
ment, twelve  ships  were  despatched  from  Batavia 
in  1660,  with  orders  that,  if  the  alarm  at  Formosa 
proved  groundless,  the  fleet  should  proceed  against 
Macao.  The  garrison  now  consisted  of  1500  men, 
and  the  Dutch  demanded  of  Koshinga  whether  he 
was  for  peace  or  war.  In  his  reply,  by  letter,  he 
affected  the  most  friendly  disposition  towards  the 
settlement ;  and,  still  farther  to  lull  the  Hollanders 
into  security,  sent  several  merchant  vessels  to  For- 
mosa.   The  governor's  suspicions  were  not  remo- 


44  THE    CHINESE. 

ved,  as  Koshinga  still  continued  his  preparations  at 
Amoy ;  but  the  majority  of  the  council  being  of  opin- 
ion that  there  was  no  present  danger,  all  the  ships 
were  ordered  away  to  their  respective  destinations. 
The  admiral,  on  his  return  to  Batavia,  accused  the 
governor  of  unreasonable  apprehensions ;  and  the 
council,  wearied  with  the  expense,  and  with  what 
they  considered  the  groundless  fears  of  the  governor, 
suspended  him  from  office,  and  ordered  him  to  Ba- 
tavia to  defend  himself.  His  successor,  M.  Clenk, 
sailed  for  Formosa  in  June,  1661. 

Meanwhile,  the  events  which  were  taking  place 
on  the  island  justified  all  the  anticipations  which 
had  been  thus  contemned.  Soon  after  the  departure 
of  the  Dutch  fleet  from  Fort  Zealand,  Koshinga  and 
his  forces  were  in  motion  :  he  embarked  upwards  of 
20,000  of  his  best  troops,  and  appeared  before  the 
settlement,  where,  assisted  by  thousands  of  his 
countrymen  on  shore,  he  soon  began  to  land.  Hav- 
ing occupied  with  his  forces  a  point  which  would 
cut  off  the  communication  between  Fort  Zealand 
and  another  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  entrance, 
the  governor  ordered  out  240  men  to  dislodge  him. 
About  4000  Chinese  had  already  occupied  the  place, 
but  so  confident  were  the  Dutch  that  the  enemy 
would  not  stand  the  fire,  that  they  immediately  at- 
tacked them.  The  Chinese,  instead  of  giving  ground, 
returned  the  fire  with  musketry  and  arrows,  and 
sent  a  detachment  to  attack  them  in  the  flanks. 
The  soldiers,  seeing  this,  were  alarmed  and  fled, 
leaving  the  captain  and  nineteen  men  in  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  while  only  half  their  company 
reached  the  fort  alive.  The  defence  by  sea  was  no 
better ;  for,  though  the  four  ships  in  port  attacked 
the  junks,  and  sank  some  of  them,  one  was  burnt 
by  the  Chinese  fire-vessels,  and  another  sailed  away 
with  the  news  for  Batavia.  The  Chinese  now 
landed  without  opposition,  and  cut  off"  all  communi- 
cation between  the  forts,  as  well  as  with  the  open 


EARLY  EUROPEAN  INTERCOURSE.     45 

country;  and  Koshinga  summoned  Fort  Zealand, 
threatening  to  put  all  to  the  sword  unless  they  sur- 
rendered at  once. 

Deputies  were  now  sent  to  the  Chinese  camp, 
which  consisted  of  about  12,000  men,  armed  in  three 
different  ways :  the  first  with  bows  and  arrows ; 
the  second  with  only  swords  and  shields  ;  and  the 
third  with  back-swords  and  pikes,  three  or  four 
feet  long,  with  broad  pointed  heads  of  iron.  The 
deputies  were  introduced  into  the  tent,  where  Ko- 
shinga  sat  in  an  elbow-chair,  behind  a  square  table, 
surrounded  by  "  the  chief  commanders,  clad  in  long 
robes,  without  arms,  and  in  great  silence,  and  with 
a  most  awful  countenance."  Koshinga  replied  that 
"  Formosa  had  always  b«longed  to  China ;  and  now 
that  the  Chinese  wanted  it,  the  foreigners  must  quit 
the  island  immediately.  If  not,  let  them  only  hoist 
the  red  flag."  On  the  following  morning  the  red 
flag  was  seen  over  Fort  Zealand,  but  the  other  fort 
was  surrendered  with  its  garrison  and  cannon.  All 
the  men  able  to  fight  were  now  taken  within  the 
citadel,  and  the  tow^n  itself  set  on  fire,  in  order  to 
deprive  the  besiegers  of  shelter ;  but  the  Chinese 
saved  many  of  the  buildings,  and  brought  up  twenty- 
eight  pieces  of  cannon  to  bear  against  the  fort. 
They  were,  however,  so  galled  by  the  fire  of  the 
Dutch,  that  the  streets  were  strewed  with  the  killed, 
and  the  besieged,  making  a  sally,  spiked  their  guns. 
Koshinga,  finding  all  his  attacks  fruitless,  began  a 
close  blockade,  and  turned  his  rage  on  the  open 
country,  making  the  Dutch  residents,  and  especially 
the  ministers,  prisoners ;  one  of  these  was  sent  to 
Fort  Zealand  to  propose  terms  of  surrender,  on  the 
refusal  of  which  all  the  prisoners  were  to  be  put  to 
death.  This  individual,  by  name  Hambrocock,  hav- 
ing left  his  wife  and  children  with  the  enemy  as 
hostages,  like  another  Regulus,  exhorted  the  Dutch 
to  a  good  defence,  and  returned  to  Koshinga  with 
the  governor's  refusal.     As  might  have  been  ex- 


46  THE  CHINESE. 

pected,  both  himself  and  all  the  other  prisoners  were 
put  to  death,  including  many  of  the  women  and 
children. 

Only  two  days  after  the  council  at  Batavia  had 
censured  Coyet  for  his  fears,  and  despatched  his 
successor  Clenk  to  Formosa,  the  ship  which  had 
sailed  away  arrived  with  the  news  of  the  attack  on 
that  place.  They  immediately  revoked  the  censure, 
and  fitted  out  ten  ships,  with  700  soldiers,  for  the 
island ;  but  Clenk  arrived  first  oflf  Fort  Zealand, 
where  he  saw  the  red  flag  flying,  and  hundreds  of 
Chinese  vessels  lying  in  the  north  roads.  He  came 
to  anchor,  and  sent  his  despatches  on  shore ;  but, 
instead  of  landing  himself,  sailed  away  for  Japan. 
The  succours  from  Batavia  soon  afterward  arrived, 
and  the  besieged  began  to  act  on  the  ofi'ensive ; 
but  they  were  unsuccessful  in  the  attempt  to  dis- 
lodge the  enemy  from  the  town.  The  garrison  was 
now  increased  to  the  utmost ;  and  the  women  and 
children,  with  the  other  useless  persons,  sent  to  Bata- 
via. These  preparations  checked  the  approaches  of 
Koshinga ;  but  the  inconceivable  imprudence  of  the 
Dutch  lost  them  their  advantage.  The  governor 
received  letters  from  the  Tartar  viceroy  of  Fokien 
(the  opposite  province),  requesting  his  assistance  in 
expelling  the  remains  of  Koshinga's  forces  from 
the  coast,  and  promising  his  aid  afterward  to  the 
Dutch  at  Formosa.  Five  ships  were  accordingly 
sent  away  for  this  purpose ;  but  three  were  lost  in 
a  storm,  and  the  remainder  returned  to  Batavia. 
The  wish  of  Koshinga  was  complete.  A  deserter 
from  the  Dutch  encouraged  the  besiegers,  and 
showed  them  the  weakest  points.  They  now  as- 
sailed the  fort  from  three  batteries,  and  succeeded 
in  making  a  breach,  which  they  soon  prepared  to 
assault.  The  Hollanders  upon  this  began  to  delib- 
erate, and  the  majority  of  the  council  decided  that 
the  fort  was  untenable.  Accordingly,  after  a  siege 
oX  nine  months,  with  the  loss  of  about  1600  men, 


RUSSIAN  EMBASSIES.  47 

Formosa  was  given  up,  and  the  Dutch  returned  to 
Java,  in  1662.  Koshinga  now  became  independent 
sovereign  of  the  island ;  but  in  1683  it  was  surren- 
dered by  his  grandson  to  the  Manchow  Tartar 
dynasty. 

The  intercourse  of  the  Russians  with  China 
through  Siberia  not  being  of  a  maritime  character, 
and  confined  altogether  to  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  empire,  has  differed  altogether  from  that  of 
other  European  nations,  and  we  have  not  space  to 
enter  into  the  details  of  its  history.  One  attempt 
was  made  by  them  m  1806  to  communicate  with 
Canton  by  sea  in  two  ships  under  the  command  of 
Captain  Krusenstern  ;  but  an  edict  was  then  issued 
forbidding  to  Russia  any  trade  except  by  land,  at  the 
frontier  station  (established  by  mutual  treaties)  at 
Kiacta  in  Tartary.  The  most  celebrated  early  em- 
bassies from  Russia  overland  were  those  of  Isbrand 
Ides,  in  1693,  and  of  Ismaloff,  sent  by  Peter  the 
Great,  in  1719,  an  account  of  whose  mission  is  well 
given  by  Mr.  Bell,  of  Antermony.  The  ambassa- 
dor in  both  instances  was  treated  with  a  degree  of 
respect  unusual  at  Peking,  and  demonstrative  of 
the  estimation  in  which  the  power  of  Russia  v/as 
held  there,  Catharine  1.,  in  1727,  despatched 
Count  Vladislavitch  to  China  as  ambassador  extra- 
ordinary, and  by  him  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by 
which  the  Russians  were  to  have  a  church  at  Pe- 
king, with  an  establishment  of  priests ;  and  four 
young  Russians  were  to  remain  at  the  residence  of 
the  embassy,  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  lan- 
guage, and  serving  as  interpreters  between  the  two 
nations.  The  Russian  mission  now  consists  of  six 
ecclesiastical  and  four  lay  members,  who  study  the 
Manchow  and  Chinese  languages.  Their  abode  at 
Peking  extends  to  a  period  of  about  ten  years,  at 
the  end  of  which  they  are  relieved  by  others  from 
St.  Petersburg. 


48 


THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  II. 


ENGLISH    INTERCOURSE. 


First  Trade  between  England  and  China. — Forts  battered.— 
Leave  to  Trade. — Treaty  of  Commerce  at  Formosa. — Troub- 
les at  Canton.  — Heavy  charges  on  Trade.  —  Amoy  and 
Ningpo.— Ten  European  ships  at  Canton  in  1736.— Commo- 
dore Anson  in  China. — Intrigues  of  Hong  Merchants. — Mr. 
Flint. — Quarrels  of  English  and  French. — Trade  forbidden  at 
Ningpo. — Seizure  of  Mr.  Flint. — His  Majesty's  ship  Argo. — 
The  Portuguese  give  up  an  innocent  Man. — Chinese  Maxim 
for  ruling  Barbarians. — Violent  conduct  of  a  Ship-master. — 
Debts  to  the  English  recovered  from  the  Chinese. — Shocking 
case  of  the  Gunner  in  1784. — Mission  and  Death  of  Colonel 
Cathcart. — Mission  of  Earl  Macartney. 

We  now  proceed  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  early 
intercourse  between  Great  Britain  and  China,  the 
first  attempt  to  estabhsh  which  seems  to  have  been 
as  far  back  as  1596,  when  three  ships  were  fitted 
out  in  charge  of  Benjamin  Wood,  bearing  letters 
from  Queen  Elizabeth  to  the  emperor;  but  the 
ships  were  lost  on  their  way  out,  and  no  renewal  of 
the  project  appears  to  have  taken  place.  The  old- 
est record  of  the  company  at  Canton  is  dated  April 
6th,  1637,  and  commences  thus  : — "  In  the  latitude 
of  6^  degrees  we  took  leave  of  the  ship  Planter, 
whom  God,  we  hope,  hath  conducted  in  safety. 
Upon  her  was  laden  as  per  invoice  appeareth,"  &c. 
This  was  one  of  a  fleet  of  five  ships,  of  which  the 
remaining  four,  the  Dragon,  Sim.,  Catharine,  and  Ann, 
proceeded  on  their  way  to  China,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Captain  Weddel.  They  first  arrived  at 
Acheen  in  Sumatra.  "  At  our  reaching  this  (it  is 
said)  we  found  no  Christians  in  the  whole  town, 
but  there  were  three  Dutchmen.    Their  capital  was 


PORTUGUESE  INTRIGUES.  49 

small,  as  likewise  their  wit  and  manners,  being  fel- 
lows of  former  slender  employment,  and  sent  hither 
rather  to  oppose  any  of  our  nation  that  should  arrive 
in  outfacing,  outvying,  and  outlying  them,  than  for 
any  real  intent  or  desire  of  trade."*  The  fleet  pro- 
ceeded on  its  way  to  China,  and  arrived  off  Macao 
on  the  28th  May.  Here  the  Portuguese  did  all  in 
their  power  to  misrepresent  them  to  the  Chinese, 
and  prevent  the  chance  of  a  trade.  After  several 
fruitless  attempts  to  establish  a  peaceful  arrange- 
ment, and  some  vain  endeavours  to  depute  persons 
from  the  fleet  to  open  a  negotiation  at  Canton,  it 
was  resolved  that  all  the  ships  should  sail  up  the 
river.  They  arrived  in  a  few  days  at  the  river's 
mouth,  at  present  called  the  Bogue,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  forts  ;  "  and  being  now  furnished  with 
some  slender  interpreters,  they  soon  had  speech 
with  divers  mandarines  in  the  king's  jounkes,  to 
whom  the  cause  of  their  arrival  was  declared,  viz., 
to  entertain  peace  and  amity  with  them,  to  traffic 
freely  as  the  Portugalls  did,  and  to  be  forthwith  sup- 
plied, for  their  monies,  with  provisions  for  their 
ships:  all  which  those  mandarines  promised  to  solicit 
with  the  prime  men  resident  at  Canton;  and  in  the 
meantime  desired  an  expectation  of  six  days,  which 
were  granted ;  and  the  English  ships  rode  with 
white  ensigns  on  the  poop;  but  their  perfidious 
friends  the  Portugalls  had  in  all  that  time,  since  the 
return  of  the  pinnace,  so  beslandered  them  to  the 
Chinese,  reporting  them  to  be  rogues,  thieves,  beg- 
gars, and  what  not,  that  they  became  very  jealous 
of  the   good  meaning  of  the   English;   insomuch 

*  This  rancour  against  the  Dutch  was  the  consequence  of 
the  mutual  jealousies  which  existed  between  the  rival  traders 
of  the  two  countries  at  that  time  in  the  East.  A  treaty  con- 
cluded with  Holland,  called  the  treaty  of  defence,  in  J  615,  had  no 
effect  ultimately  in  producing  harmony  ;  and  the  dreadful  mas- 
sacre of  Amboyna,  in  1623,  at  length  became  the  crowning  act 
of  cruelty  and  perfidy  on  the  part  of  the  Hollanders. 
Vol.  I.—E 


50  THE  CHINESE. 

that,  in  the  night-time,  they  put  forty-six  of  iron 
cast  ordnance  into  the  fort  lying  close  to  the  brink 
of  the  river,  each  piece  between  six  and  seven  hun- 
dred vi^eight,  and  well  proportioned ;  and  after  the 
end  of  four  days,  having,  as  they  thought,  sufficiently 
fortified  themselves,  they  discharged  divers  shot, 
though  without  hurt,  upon  one  of  the  barges  pas- 
sing by  them  to  find  a  convenient  watering-place. 
Herewith  the  whole  fleet,  being  instantly  incensed, 
did,  on  the  sudden,  display  their  bloody  ensigns; 
and,  weighing  their  anchors,  fell  up  with  the  flood, 
and  berthed  themselves  before  the  castle,  from 
whence  came  many  shot,  yet  not  any  that  touched 
so  much  as  hull  or  rope ;  whereupon,  not  being 
able  to  endure  their  bravadoes  any  longer,  each  ship 
began  to  play  furiously  upon  them  with  their  broad- 
sides; and,  after  two  or  three  hours,  perceiving 
their  cowardly  fainting,  the  boats  were  landed  with 
about  one  hundred  men ;  which  sight  occasioned 
them,  with  great  distractions,  instantly  to  abandon 
the  caslle  and  fly ;  the  boats'  crews,  in  the  mean- 
time, without  let,  entering  the  same,  and  displa3ang 
his  majesty's  colours  of  Great  Britain  upon  the 
walls,  having  the  same  night  put  aboard  all  their 
ordnance,  fired  the  council-house,  and  demolished 
what  they  could.  The  boats  of  the  fleet  also  seized 
a  jounke,  laden  with  boards  and  timber,  and  another 
with  salt.  Another  vessel  of  small  moment  was 
surprised,  by  whose  boat  a  letter  was  sent  to  the 
chief  mandarines  at  Canton,  expostulating  their 
breach  of  truce,  excusing  the  .assailing  of  the  castle, 
and  withal  in  fair  terms  requiring  the  liberty  of 
trade.  This  letter  it  seems  was  delivered ;  for,  the 
next  day,  a  mandarine  of  no  great  note,  some  time 
a  Portugal  Christian,  called  Paulo  Noretty,  came  to- 
wards the  ships  in  a  small  boat  with  a  white  flag, 
to  whom  the  English,  having  laid  open  the  injuries 
received,  and  the  sincere  intent  they  had  to  estab- 
lish fair  trade  and  commerce,  and  were  no  way 


PORTUGUESE  INTRIGUES.  51 

willing  (but  in  their  own  defence)  to  oppose  the 
China  nation,  presented  certain  gifts,  and  dismissed 
him  to  his  masters,  who  were  some  of  the  chief 
mandarines,  riding  about  a  point  of  land  not  far  from 
the  ships,  who,  being  by  him  duly  informed  thereof, 
returned  him  again  the  same  night  with  a  small 
jounke,  and  full  authority  to  carry  up  such  as  should 
be  appointed  to  Canton,  there  to  tender  a  petition, 
and  to  conclude  farther  upon  the  manner  of  their 
future  proceedings."  The  result  was,  that  the  blame 
of  the  late  skirmish  was  laid  by  the  mandarins  on 
the  slanders  of  the  Portuguese,  and  the  captured 
guns  being  restored,  the  ships  were  supplied  with 
cargoes. 

No  farther  trade,  however,  ensued  for  many  years. 
Soon  after  this  period  the  interior  of  China  was  dis- 
tracted by  the  contests  between  the  Manchow  Tar- 
tars and  Chinese,  while  the  coasts  were  overrun  by 
large  fleets  of  pirates,  under  the  leaders  whom  we 
have  already  had  occasion  to  notice.-  Another  at- 
tempt was  made  by  the  English  in  1664  to  estabhsh 
a  commercial  intercourse  with  Canton.  The  com- 
pany's agents  landed  at  Macao,  and  obtained  a  lodg- 
ing there,  with  the  view  of  prosecuting  a  negotia- 
tion with  the  Chinese  :  these,  however,  demanded 
2000  taels  on  each  ship  as  a  port-charge,  and  when 
1000  were  offered,  they  rejected  the  proposal.  At 
length  a  guard  of  Chinese  was  placed  over  the 
English,  and  they  were  obliged  to  abandon  the  at- 
tempt and  return  to  Bantam  ;  there  being  every  rea- 
son to  suppose  that  the  Portuguese,  as  usual,  were 
instrumental  to  their  failure.  In  1668  peace  with 
the  Dutch  encouraged  the  company  to  look  towards 
China,  and  accordingly  application  was  made  to  Sir 
Robert  Southwell,  ambassador  in  Portugal,  to  obtain 
good  treatment  for  our  ships,  should  they  be  obhged 
to  touch  at  Goa  or  Macao.  In  the  same  year  the 
company's  servants  at  Bantam  observed,  in  a  de- 


52  THE    CHINESE. 

spatch  to  the  court, "  Hockchiie*  will  be  a  place  of 
great  resort,  affording  all  China  commodities,  as  tu- 
tanag,  silk,  raw  and  wrought,  gold,  China-root,  tea, 
&c.,  for  which  must  be  carried  broadcloth,  lead, 
amber,  pepper,  coral,  sandal-wood,  red-wood,  in- 
cense, cacha  (cassia),  putchuk,"  &c.  These,  all  of 
them,  form  articles  of  trade  at  present  with  either 
England  or  India. 

The  records  then  show  that,  in  1670,  a  trade  was 
established  at  Taywan,  or  Formosa,  with  the  chief 
Koshinga,  who,  as  we  have  before  seen,  had  expell- 
ed the  Dutch  from  that  island  in  1662.  It  is  possi- 
ble that,  knowing  the  rivalry  and  animosity  which 
existed  between  the  Dutch  and  English,  he  encour- 
aged the  latter  to  come,  as  a  counterpoise  in  his 
own  favour,  should  the  Dutch  attempt  to  repossess 
themselves  of  Formosa.  A  treaty  was  entered  into, 
called  "  The  contract  made  with  the  King  of  Tay- 
wan for  the  settling  of  a  factory,"  in  which  the 
company  stipulate  "  that  we  may  sell  or  truck  our 
goods  with  whom  we  please,  and  hkewise  all  per- 
sons may  have  the  same  free  trade  with  us  ;  that, 
for  all  injuries  or  wrongs  that  shall  be  done  us  by 
the  people  here,  the  king  shall  right  us  ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  what  injuries  or  wrongs  the  Eng- 
lish shall  do,  apphcation  being  made  to  the  chief, 
satisfaction  shall  be  made  by  them  ;  that  upon  all 
occasions  we  may  have  access  to  the  king's  per- 
son ;  that  we  may  have  the  choosing  of  our  own  in- 
terpreters and  escrivans,  and  no  soldiers  to  be  put 
upon  us,  and  also  to  be  free  to  walk  without  China- 
men along  with  us  ;  that  what  goods  the  king  buys 
shall  pay  no  custom ;  that  rice  imported  pay  no  cus- 
tom; that  all  goods  imported  pay  3  per  cent,  after 
sale,  and  all  goods  exported  be  custom  free."  It 
was  provided,  however,  that  all  ships  should  deliver 

*  The  provincial  pronunciation  for  Fokchow  Foo (which  pos- 
sesses  great  advantages  for  European  trade)  in  Fokien  province. 


PORTUGUESE    IRTRIGUES.  53 

up  their  guns  and  ammunition  while  in  port.     It 
seems  that  this  trade  at  length  proved  so  unprofita- 
ble and  vexatious,  that  the  company,  in  1681,  or- 
dered their  establishments  at  Formosa  and  Amoy 
to  be  withdrawn,  and  a  trade,  if  possible,  establish- 
ed at  Canton  and  Hockchue,  or  Fokchow.     In  1683, 
Formosa,  as  already  noticed,  was  surrendered  to 
the  Tartars,  and  in  a  curious  despatch  to  the  com- 
pany, dated  the  20th  December  in  that  year,  it  is 
observed,  that  "  the  inhabitants  were  ordered,  in  the 
name  of  the  Great  Cham  of  Tartary,  to  shave  all 
their  hairs  off,  save  enough  to  make  a  monkey's 
tale,  pendent  from  the  very  noddle  of  their  heads, 
and  betake  themselves  to  his  country's  habit."   The 
Tartars,  from  the  very  first  conquest  of  China,  have 
shown  a  great  disinclination  to  foreign  trade,  which 
may  have  arisen  partly  from  their  having  a  less  es- 
teem for  it  than  the  native  rulers  of  the  country, 
and  partly  from  a  fear  of  some  collusion  taking 
place  between   Europeans  and  their  Chinese  sub- 
jects.    It  is,  in  fact,  since  the  Tartar  conquest  that 
the  English  have  been  excluded  from  Ningpo  and 
Amoy,  having  traded  at  the  latter  place  while  it  re- 
mained independent  of  the  Manchows,  and  some 
time  after  the  rest  of  China  had  submitted  to  them. 
The  ship  Delight  was  sent  in  1685  to  attempt  the 
re-establishment  of  a  trade  at  Amoy  ;    and,  about 
the  same  time,  active  exertions  were  made  by  the 
company  towards  securing  a  regular  commerce  at 
Canton.     In  the  progress  of  all  these  trials  one  of 
the  most  striking  circumstances  is  the  stupid  perti- 
nacity with  which  the  Portuguese  of  Macao  exclu- 
ded English  ships  from  that  port;  and  the  perfidy 
with  which  they  misrepresented  their  supposed  ri- 
vals to  the  Chinese,  with  a  view  to  prevent  their 
getting  a  footing  at  Canton.     In  the  course  of  time 
they  have  been  unable  to  exclude  us  altogether 
even  from  Macao ;  but  their  systematic  policy  has 
been  to  attribute  motives  to  the  "English  which  should 
E  2 


54  THE    CHINESE. 

injure  them  with  the  provincial  government;  and 
this  was  strikingly  exemplified  during  the  expedi- 
tion under  Admiral  Drury,  in  1808. 

Soon  after  the  Tartar  conquest  we  find  it  stated 
by  the  mandarins,  in  reply  to  certain  inquiries  on 
t^ie  subject,  that  "  a  present  to  the  emperor  of  strange 
fowls  and  beasts  would  be  more  acceptable  than  a 
ship's  lading  of  gold."  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
gifts  of  this  kind  are  extremely  well  suited  to  Pe- 
king ;  and  on  the  occasion  of  any  future  mission,  it 
would  be  well  to  keep  the  advice  in  view,  instead 
of  confining  the  selection  of  presents  entirely  to 
works  of  art ;  as  they  were,  in  our  past  embassies, 
most  of  them  unintelligible  and  useless  to  the  em- 
peror and  his  court.  The  troubles  of  the  trade  at 
Canton  appear  to  have  commenced  very  early. 
The  hoppo,  or  chief  commissioner  of  customs,  in 
1689,  demanded  2484  taels  for  the  measurage  (or 
port-charge)  of  the  ship  Defence ;  but,  on  finding  that 
it  would  not  be  paid,  he  took  1500  taels.  In  the 
rjieanwhile,  one  of  the  crew  of  the  Defence  had  kill- 
ed a  Cliinese,  and  a  tumult  ensued,  in  which  sever- 
al of  the  seamen,  and  the  surgeon  of  the  ship,  lost 
their  lives.  Not  satisfied  with  thi^s,  the  mandarins 
declared,  that  unless  5000  taels  were  paid,  the  De- 
fence would  not  be  allowed  to  sail ;  but,  when  they 
had  refused  2000,  the  captain  quitted  Canton,  and 
took  his  vessel  out  of  the  river.  The  present 
charges  on  a  ship  of  about  800  tons  in  the  port  of 
Whampoa  are  very  little  short  of  5000  dollars,  or 
above  £1000. 

It  appears  from  a  letter  of  the  court  of  directors 
to  the  factory  in  China,  dated  23d  November,  1699, 
that  a  consul's  commission  was  sent  out  to  the 
chief  of  the  company's  council ;  nor  does  any  no- 
tice appear  on  the  records  of  this  having  been  subse- 
quently recalled.  They  say,  "We  have  obtained  a 
commission  from  his  majesty  to  constitute  you,  and 
those  who  shall  be  hereafter  appointed  by  us,  as 


HEAVY  CHARGES  ON  TRADE.       55 

our  president  in  China,  to  be  the  king's  minister  or 
consul  for  the  Enghsh  nation,  with  all  powers  requi- 
site thereunto."  The  court  of  directors  appear  to 
have  been  unaware  of  this  when,  in  1832,  they  de- 
nied that  their  president  was  any  other  than  a  com- 
pany's representative ;  indeed,  it  was  very  correct- 
ly observed  in  Parliament,,  with  reference  to  this 
proceeding  of  the  court,  that  the  complete  powers 
with  which  the  legislature  had  vested  the  chief  in 
China  over  all  British  subjects,  seemed  alone  to  give 
him  a  national  character. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  century  until  1727, 
many  very  severe  grievances  were  suffered  at  Can- 
ton, and,  although  the  trade  continued  to  proceed, 
it  was  with  frequent  interruptions.  In  that  year  we 
find  that  an  exemption  was  required  by  the  English 
from  various  extortions;  among  others,  a  total 
charge  of  16  per  cent,  on  the  trade ;  heavy  taxes  on 
the  compradors,  or  purveyors,  for  supplying  the 
ships;  and  what  was  called  the  present  of  1950 
taels,  in  addition  to  the  measurage,  or  port-fee. 
For  some  time  the  local  government  had  attempted 
to  invest  a  single  individual,  called  "  the  emperor's 
merchant,"  with  the  exclusive  right  of  conducting 
the  European  commerce.  This  "  monster  in  trade," 
however  (as  he  is,  very  properly  termed  on  the 
records),  was  soon  obliged  to  allow  others  to  parti- 
cipate. The  Hong  merchants  then  endeavoured  to 
estabhsh  a  hong,  or  united  firm,  among  themselves 
The  supercargoes  upon  this  declined  trading  until 
the  combination  was  dissolved,  and  a  representation 
to  the  viceroy  was  at  length  successful  in  removing 
it.  On  their  declaring,  moreover,  that  they  should 
be  obliged  to  proceed  to  Amoy,  or  some  other  port, 
unless  the  heavy  charges  on  their  trade  were  re- 
mitted, the  hoppo  promised  them  redress.  Not- 
withstanding this,  in  the  following  year  of  1728,  an 
additional  duty  of  10  per  cent,  was  laid  on  all  ex- 


56  THE    CHINESE. 

ports  to  Europe,  and  the  remonstrances  of  the  Eng- 
lish merchants  proved  unavaihng. 

From  what  appears  to  have  transpired  relative  to 
this  10  per  cent,  duty,  it  seems  clear  that  raw  pro- 
duce has,  from  the  very  first,  found  a  better  market 
at  Canton  than  manufactures.  It  is  observed  on  the 
records,  "  a  duty  of  IQ  per  cent,  hath  really  been 
paid  by  the  merchants  to  the  hoppo  on  all  goods 
sold  to  the  Europe  ships  for  some  years  past,  though, 
at  the  same  time,  the  country*  ships  remain  free. 
At  length  one  of  the  merchants  gave  this  reason, 
which  they  hold  as  a  very  just  one,  that  the  hoppo, 
for  several  years  past,  observing  that  a  considera- 
ble duty  arose  to  the  emperor  upon  goods  imported 
by  the  country  ships  (the  raw  produce  of  India  and 
the  straits),  and  that  the  Europe  ships  brought  few 
or  none,  he  fixed  that  rate  upon  the  merchants  for 
all  goods  sold  by  them  to  the  Europe  ships."  The 
great  industry  and  ingenuity  of  the  Chinese  cause 
them  to  turn  nearly  all  raw  produce  to  good  ac- 
count ;  while  the  peculiarities  of  their  national  cus- 
toms and  tastes,  added  to  the  obstacles  of  both  law 
and  prejudice  against  European  productions  of  art, 
render  these  far  less  acceptable  in  general.  ■ 

In  1734  only  one  ship,  the  Harrison,  was  sent  to 
Canton,  simply  on  account  of  the  high  duties  and 
extortions.  An  attempt,  however,  was  made  at 
Amoy,  in  the  ship  Grafton.  The  history  of  the  ne- 
gotiations at  that  place  affords  a  notable  specimen 
of  Chinese  rapacity  and  faithlessness.  After  spend- 
ing months  in  the  fruitless  endeavour  to  obtain  rea- 
sonable terms  from  the  mandarins,  they  were  com- 
pelled at  length  to  take  their  departure  for  Canton, 
principally  because  they  could  not  get  liberty  to 
trade  with  any  persons  but  those  who  were  leagued 
with  the  mandarins,  one  of  whom  was  always  sta- 
tioned over  them  in  the  house  they  had  rented  on 

*  Those  from  India. 


HEAVY  CHARGES  ON  TRADE.       5't 

shore^  In  addition  to  the  regular  duties,  which 
were  very  high,  there  was  an  extra  charge  of  20  per 
cent,  for  the  hoppo.  "The  ignorance  of  the  Amoy 
merchants  (it  is  observed),  and  the  httle  encourage- 
ment they  gave  us,  make  us  almost  despair  of  doing 
any  business  at  that  place."  In  1736  the  ship  Nor- 
manton  proceeded  to  Ningpo,  and  strenuous  efforts 
were  made  to  open  a  trade  there,  unfettered  by  the 
oppressions  they  had  suffered  formerly  in  the  neigh- 
bouring Island  of  Chusan ;  but  they  found  the  man- 
darins very  imperious  and  obstinate,  insisting,  as  a 
necessary  preliminary,  on  the  surrender  of  their 
arms  and  ammunition.  There  moreover  appeared 
few  inducements  to  trade ;  for  the  record  observes, 
"  it  seems  rather  to  have  been,  than  to  be,  a  place 
of  great  commerce."  It  is  probable  that  this,  with 
other  parts  of  China,  had  suffered  by  the  Tartar 
invasion.  After  wasting  nearly  two  months  in 
fruitless  attempts  to  procure  a  fair  trade,  the  Nor- 
manton  sailed  for  Canton :  on  arriving  there  it  was 
found  that  the  Emperor  Kien-loong,  who  had  just 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  had  remitted  the  duty  of 
10  per  cent.,  as  well  as  the  present  of  1550  taels, 
leaving  that  portion  of  the  port-charges  only  which 
is  called  the  measurage*  When  the  edict  ordering 
this  remission  was  to  be  read  in  the  Imperial  Hall 
of  Audience,  the  Hong  merchants  informed  the  dif- 
ferent European  traders  "  that  they  must  prostrate 
themselves,  kneehng  on  both  their  knees." — "  Sus- 
pecting that  the  merchants  endeavoured  to  make  us 
beheve  this,  in  order  that  by  our  compliance  we 
might  be  brought  down  to  the  same  servile  level 
with  themselves ;  considering,  also,  that  the  posture 
insisted  on  is  such  a  mark  of  abject  submission  as 
we  never  pay  to  our  own  sovereigns  in  Europe,  we 

*  Notwithstanding  this,  the  provincial  government  contrived 
to  exact  \\\e  ■present  to  its  full  amount  until  1829,  when  a  trifling 
reduction  was  made  in  it. 


58  THE    CHINESE. 

unanimously  agreed  that  we  should  dishonour  our- 
selves and  our  countries  in  complying  with  it.  Be- 
ing apprehensive  that  they  (the  Hong  merchants) 
might  succeed  in  their  design  of  weakening  us,  by 
creating  in  us  mutual  suspicions  and  jealousies,  we 
met  in  a  body,  and,  by  unanimous  agreement,  gave 
our  solemn  words  of  honour  that  none  of  us  would 
submit  to  the  slavish  posture  required,  nor  make 
any  concession  or  proposal  of  accommodation  sep- 
arately, without  first  acquainting  all  the  rest."  It 
was  fortunate  for  them  that  they  never  prostrated 
themselves,  for  more  substantial  concessions  would 
very  soon  have  been  demanded,  had  they  gone 
through  this  form  of  allegiance  and  fealty.  It  seems 
that  in  that  year  (just  a  century  since)  the  total 
number  of  European  ships  at  Canton  was  ten,  v;z., 
four  English,  two  French,  two  Dutch,  one  Dane, 
and  one  Swede. 

At  the  close  of  1741  his  majesty's  ship  Centurion, 
under  the  command  of  Commodore  Anson,  arrived 
off  Macao,  in  the  prosecution  of  her  voyage  round 
the  world,  being  the  first  British  man-of-war  that 
visited  China.  The  interesting  details  of  that  ship's 
stay  are  well  given  in  the  popular  history  of  the 
voyage,  and  familiar  to  most  readers.  After  being 
hove  down  and  repaired,  the  Centurion  put  to  sea, 
and  succeeded  in  capturing  the  Acapulco  ship,  with 
its  valuable  freight  of  treasure,  with  which  she  pro- 
ceeded ggain  to  the  Canton  river,  being  in  want  of 
provisions.  The  commodore,  on  his  arrival,  was 
subjected,  as  usual,  to  numberless  vexatious  delays: 
and  the  following  passages  occur  on  the  manuscript 
proceedings :  "  A  new  difficulty  was  now  started,  that 
Mr.  Anson,  being  lodged  at  Mr.  Townsend's,  must 
first  go  to  Macao ;  for,  if  he  remained  in  the  house 
after  Mr.  Townsend  left  it,  the  Hong  merchants  said 
they  should  of  course  become  security  for  him  to 
the  mandarins  ;  and  should  Mr.  Anson  take  a  Span- 
ish ship  near  I\Iacao,  on  tJie  coast,  they  would  then 


INTRIGUES    OF    HONG    MERCHANTS.  59 

be  made  answerable  for  the  damages,  and  perhaps 
lose  their  heads.  Mr.  Anson  declared  he  did  not 
want  any  person  to  be  security  for  him,  but  told 
them  that  unless  he  got  some  provisions  he  would 
not  stir  out  of  Canton,  for  he  had  not  five  days' 
bread  on  board  his  ship.  We  assembled  the  mer- 
chants the  third  time,  to  persuade  them,  if  possible, 
to  prevail  with  the  mandarins  to  grant  Mr.  Anson  a 
general  chop  for  all  the  necessaries  he  wants.  They 
informed  us,  the  mandarins  had  such  a  strange  no- 
tion of  a  ship  which  went  about  the  world  seeking 
other  ships  in  order  to  tal\e  them^  that  they  could  not 
be  brought  to  hear  reason  on  that  head."  At  length 
the  merchants  became  so  uneasy  at  the  commo- 
dore's stay  in  Canton,  that  they  suffered  a  pui-veyor 
to  ship  the  provisions  without' the  inspection  of  the 
custom-house. 

The  loss  of  the  Acapulco  ship  led  the  Spaniards., 
in  1744,  to  fit  out  several  vessels  for  the  annoyance 
of  our  China  trade  ;  and  when  the  Hurdwicke  East 
Indiaman  arrived  off  the  coast,  a  note  was  delivered, 
by  means  of  a  Chinese  boat,  to  say  that  three  Span- 
ish ships  were  lying  off  Macao  to  intercept  her ; 
the  Hardivicke  accordingly  sailed  aw^ay  for  Amoy. 
There,  however,  the  mandarins  insisted  on  the  ship's 
proceeding  into  the  inner  harbour  without  any  pre- 
vious conditions,  as  well  as  delivering  up  all  arms 
and  ammunition.  The  merchants  showed  no  dis- 
position to  trade,  and,  in  fact,  there  seemed  little  to 
trade  with.  Accordingly,  after  fifteen  days  of  in- 
effectual trial,  the  ship  was  compelled  to  proceed  to 
India  against  the  monsoon,  without  a  single  article 
of  cargo  !  Nor.  was  the  condition  of  the  trade  much 
better  at  Canton.  The  extortions  increased  in  spite 
of  all  attempts  at  representation  on  the  part  of  the 
supercargoes.  The  Hong  merchants  used  every 
endeavour,  and  at  length  succeeded,  in  preventing 
the  access  of  Europeans  to  the  officers  of  govern- 
ment, finding  that  by  that  means  they  could  exercise 


60  THE    CIILNESE. 

their  impositions  on  both  with  the  greater  success 
and  impunity.  To  the  foreigners  they  alleged,  that 
the  mandarins  were  the  authors  of  all  the  exactions 
on  the  trade ;  to  the  mandarins,  that  the  foreigners 
were  of  so  barbarous  and  fierce  a  temper,  as  to  be 
incapable  of  listening  to  reason.  The  records  ob- 
serve, that,  "  ever  since  they  carried  their  point  of 
preventing  all  intercourse  between  the  Europeans 
and  mandarins,  they  have  imposed  upon  both  in 
their  turns,  and  put  the  trade  of  this  place  upon 
such  a  footing  as  Avithout  redress  will  render  it  im- 
practicable to  Europeans."  In  these  difficult  timei* 
it  was  that  Mr.  Flint,  a  person  of  uncommon  talents 
and  merit,  contrived  to  master  the  difficulties  of  the 
Chinese  language ;  but  the  ungrateful  return  which 
his  energy  and  exertions  in  their  service  met  with 
from  his  employers  was  such  as  tended,  in  all  prob- 
abihty,  more  than  any  other  cause,  to  discourage  his 
successors  from  undertaking  so  laborious,  unprofit- 
able, and  even  hazardous  a  work  of  supererogation. 
We  find  Mr.  Flint  acting  as  interpreter  in  1747,  and 
he  soon  had  to  perform  a  very  .prominent  part  in 
China,  as  will  appear  hereafter. 

The  grievances  suffered  by  our  trade  led  to  a  re- 
monstrance, in  which  the  principal  points  were,  the 
delay  in  unloading  the  ships ;  the  plunder  of  goods 
on  the  river;  the  injurious  affiches  annually  put  up 
by  the  government,  accusing  the  foreigners  of  hor- 
rible crimes,  and  intended  to  expose  them  to  the 
contempt  of  the  populace ;  the  extortions,  under 
false  pretexts,  of  the  inferior  officers ;  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  access  to  the  mandarins.  The  ships  were 
detained  outside  in  1754,  until  the  viceroy  had 
promised  to  attend  to  these  various  complaints;  but 
little  was  ultimately  gained.  It  is  to  be  apprehend- 
ed that  the  want  of  union  among  the  Europeans 
had,  as  usual,  the  efl'ect  of  frustrating  their  attempts 
at  redress.  "Some  gentlemen,"  it  is  observed, 
••  were  of  opinion  that  we  ought  to  make  a  stand , 


DISPUTES  OF  THE  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH.  61 

and  as,  by  arguing  the  case,  we  seemed  to  be  the 
farther  from  a  determination,  we  parted  without 
any  resolve,  except  that  every  man  would  do  as  he 
liked  best."  This  certainly  was  not  the  way  to  suc- 
ceed with  the  Chinese.  The  animosities  which 
prevailed  between  the  English  and  French  were 
productive  of  much  trouble  to  both;  and  to  such  a 
height  did  the  disorders  arrive  at  Whampoa,  be- 
tween the  crews  of  the  different  nations  on  shore, 
that  an  English  sailor  was  at  length  shot  by  some 
of  the  French  officers,  and  another  taken  prisoner ; 
which  was  immediately  followed  by  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  the  English  supercargoes  from  "  Le  Con- 
seil  de  direction  de  Canton,  representant  la  nation 
Frangaise  a  la  Chine."  The  Chinese  magistrate 
held  an  inquest  at  Whampoa,  and  desired  the  French, 
in  the  first  place,  to  give  up  their  prisoner,  which 
they  did,  alleging,  however,  that  the  English  had 
commenced  the  disturbance,  by  attacking  their  peo- 
ple. As  the  Frenchman  fired  a  musket,  of  which 
he  had  deliberately  gone  in  quest,  it  was  plainly 
nothing  better  than  a  murder  ;  and  the  English  sail- 
ors were  so  exasperated,  that  there  seemed  to  be 
no  way  of  preventing  their  doing  themselves  justice, 
but  to  demand  justice  from  the  Chinese  government. 
The  viceroy  stopped  the  trade  until  they  should 
give  up  the  criminal ;  and  somebody  was  at  length 
seized  by  the  Chinese  and  taken  into  the  city,  con- 
fessing himself  the  guilty  person.  He  was  libera- 
ted the  following  year  by  order  of  the  emperor,  on 
occasion  of  a  general  act  of  grace  ;  and,  as  a  means 
of  preventing  farther  disturbances  at  Whampoa, 
Dane's  Island  was  allotted  to  the  English,  and 
French  Island  to  the  French  sailors,  for  their  recre- 
ation. 

In  1755,  Messrs.  Harrison  and  Flint  were  de- 
spatched to  Ningpo,  with  the  view  of  re-establishing 
a  trade  there  if  possible.  On  their  arrival  they 
were  well  received,  and  the  charges  and  customs 

Vol.  I.— F 


62  THE  CHINESE. 

appeared  considerably  lower  than  at  Canton.     The 
fooyiien,  or  deputy-governor,  was  so  desirous  of 
giving  them  encouragement,  that  he  conceded  al- 
most all  the  articles  in  their  memorial :  in  so  doing, 
however,  he  appeared  to  have  exceeded  his  power; 
for  when  the  ship  Holdernesse   subsequently  pro- 
ceeded to  Ningpo,  to  take  advantage  of  this  appa- 
rent opening,  the  viceroy,  av^io   was  then  in  the 
province,  sent  an  order  for  all  the  great  guns,  small 
arms,    and   ammunition   to  be   taken   out  of  the 
ship,  and  the  same  duties  to  be  paid  as  at  Canton, 
Though  the  fooyuen  could  not  act  directly  against 
this  order,  he  did  not  comply  with  it,  but  sent  it 
straight  up  to  Peking,  with  an  account  of  what  he 
had  done,  thereby  putting  it  out  of  the  viceroy's 
power,  as   well  as  his  own,  to  make  an  absolute 
decision  in  the  interim.     As  it  would  be  the  end  of 
September  before  an  answer  could  possibly  arrive 
from  Peking,  the  mandarins  agreed  to  begin  busi- 
ness, provided  that  half  the  guns  and  ammunition 
were  delivered.     Twelve  great  guns  were  accord- 
ingly given  up,  and  the  ships  unloaded  :  the  Holder- 
nesse, however,  paid  to  the  mandarins  2000  taels, 
and  the  other  charges  and  duties  proved  double 
those  at  Canton,  while  no  residence  was  allowed 
on  shore.     The  objection  made  by  the  government 
to  a  trade  at  Ningpo  was  "  the  loss  of  revenue  to 
the  emperor,   accruing  from  overland  carriage  of 
tea  and  other  goods  to  Canton  ;"  the  very  circum- 
stance, of  course,  which   enhanced  the   prices  of 
those  goods  to  the  I]uropean  purchaser.     On  their 
departure  from  Ningpo,  the  supercargoes  were  for- 
mally acquainted  by  the  mandarins  of  all  future 
trade  being  forbidden  them  at  that  port ;  and,  on 
reaching  Macao,  the  officers  of  the  local  govern- 
ment in  like  manner  informed  them  of  a  public 
edict,  confining  the  commerce  to  Canton. 

At  length,  in  1759,  the  factory  once  occupied  by 
the  Enghsh  at  Ningpo  was  destroyed,  the  merchants 


SEIZURE  OF  MR.  FLINT.  63 

with  whom  they  had  dealt  were  ordered  to  quit  the 
place,  and  the  war-junks  directed  to  prevent  any- 
English  ship  from  being  supplied  with  provisions  at 
Chusan.  Mr.  Flint,  notwithstanding  this,  proceeded 
to  Ningpo,  upon  which  the  Canton  government  for- 
bade his  return,  desiring  that  he  should  be  sent 
home  to  England  whenever  he  reappeared.  On 
arriving  at  Ningpo  he  was  refused  all  communica- 
tion :  upon  this  he  proceeded  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Peking,  and  succeeded  in  making  his  complaints 
known  to  the  emperor.  A  mandarin  of  rank  was 
appointed  to  proceed  with  him  by  land  to  Canton, 
and  there,  in  concert  with  others,  to  sit  in  judgment 
on  the  hoppo.  Mr.  Flint,  on  reaching  Canton,  re- 
mained ten  days  in  the  city,  and  then  proceeded  to 
the  factory.  Two  days  after,  the  foreigners  of  all 
nations  were  received  by  the  Chinese  commission- 
ers, and  informed  that  the  hoppo  had  been  degraded, 
his  place  being  supphed  by  another.  All  imposi- 
tions, moreover,  were  remitted,  except  6  per  cent, 
on  goods,  and  the  present  of  1950  taels  from  each 
ship. 

It  proved,  however,  that  these  fair  appearances 
were  destined  only  to  be  the  prelude  to  a  storm. 
Some  days  afterward,  the  viceroy  desired  to  see 
Mr.  Flint,  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  the 
emperor's  orders ;  the  council  wished  to  accompany 
him,  and  their  request  was  granted.  When  the 
party  had  reached  the  viceroy's  palace,  the  Hong 
merchants  proposed  their  going  in  one  at  a  time, 
but  they  insisted  on  proceeding  together ;  and  on 
Mr.  Fhnt  being  called  for,  they  were  received  by  a 
mandarin  at  the  first  gate,  proceeding  onward 
through  two  courts  with  seeming  complaisance 
from  the  officers  in  waiting ;  but,  on  arriving  at  the 
gate  of  the  inner  court,  they  were  hurried,  and 
even  forced,  into  the  viceroy's  presence,  and  (under 
pretence  of  doing  homage  after  the  Chinese  fashion) 
a  struggle  ensued  with  their  barbarian  conductors, 


64  THE  CHINESE. 

in  which  they  were  at  length,  by  dint  of  numbers, 
thrown  down.  The  viceroy,  seeing  their  determined 
resolution  not  to  submit  to  these  base  humiliations, 
ordered  the  people  to  desist ;  and  then  teUing  Mr. 
Flint  to  advance,  he  pointed  to  an  order,  which  he 
called  the  emperor's  edict,  for  his  banishment  to 
Macao,  and  subsequent  departure  for  England.  This 
he  declared  was  on  account  of  his  endeavouring  to 
open  a  trade  at  Ningpo,  contrary  to  orders  from 
Peking ;  he  added,  that  the  man  who  had  written 
the  Chinese  petition  was  to  be  beheaded  that  day, 
for  traitorously  encouraging  foreigners,  "  which 
execution,"  the  record  observes,  "  was  performed 
on  a  man  quite  innocent  of  what  these  absolute 
and  villanous  mandarins  were  pleased  to  call  a 
crime."  At  the  same  time,  the  complaints  against 
the  hoppo  were  admitted  to  be  just.  Mr.  Fhnt 
was  detained  in  the  city,  and  conveyed  to  a  place 
called  Tsien-shan,  or  Casa  Bianca,  near  Macao, 
where  he  was  imprisoned,  but  pretty  well  treated, 
though  all  correspondence  was  cut  off. 

Some  days  after  the  above  occurrence,  the  French, 
Danes,  Swedes,  and  Dutch  met  in  a  body  at  the 
English  factory,  and  jointly  entered  a  protest  against 
the  act  of  the  viceroy :  but  Mr.  Flint  remained  in 
prison  from  March,  1760,  to  November,  1762,  when 
he  was  carried  by  the  Chinese  to  Whampoa,  and  put 
on  board  the  ship  Horsendon,  to  be  conveyed  to 
England. 

The  success  and  impunity  of  the  Canton  govern- 
ment on  this  occasion  seem  to  have  encouraged  it 
in  its  assumptions  for  some  time  after.  When,  in 
March,  1765,  his  majesty's  ship  Argo  arrived,  con- 
voying the  Cuddalore  schooner,  with  a  supply  of 
half  a  million  of  dollars  for  the  company's  treasury, 
the  Chinese  insisted  on  searching  the  schooner, 
on  the  plea  that  a  woman  was  on  board :  but  when 
this  was  declined,  as  contrary  to  all  precedent,  they 
said  it  would  be  sufficient  if  a  mandarin  were  ad- 


A  king's  ship  measured.  65 

mitted  "  to  walk  two  or  three  times  up  and  down 
tlie  deck."  They  were  told  that  when  a  license 
had  been  granted  for  taking  out  the  silver,  they 
might  send  whom  they  pleased  to  walk  up  and  down 
the  deck.  Provisions  were  denied  to  the  Argo  in 
consequence  of  this  dispute,  and  it  was  at  length 
arranged  that  a  mandarin  should  go  on  board  when 
the  money  was  unladen.  The  Chinese  next  de- 
manded to  measure  his  majesty's  ship  Argo,  but 
this  was  refused  by  Captain  Affleck,  more  especially 
as  there  was  a  precedent  against  so  strange  a  re- 
quisition from  a  king's  ship,  in  the  case  of  the  Cen- 
turion, Commodore  Anson,  in  1742.  The  trade  was 
again  stopped  in  consequence,  and  the  council  at 
Canton  offered  to  pay  the  amount  of  measurage  of 
the  company's  largest  ship  in  lieu  of  the  Argo;  but 
the  mandarins  would  not  consent,  and  Captain  Af- 
fleck at  length  allowed  the  Argo  to  be  measured. 
Had  he  sailed  away  at  the  commencement  of  the 
dispute,  it  is  probable  that  this  might  have  been 
avoided. 

The  ill-will  generated  on  both  sides  by  the  inso- 
lence of  the  Chinese,  and  the  consequences  result- 
ing from  it,  had  the  effect  of  constantly  embroiling 
the  English  and  natives  for  several  years  after, 
during  a  period  in  which  a  greater  number  of  affrays 
and  homicides  occurred  than  have  ever  been  known 
of  late  years.  In  1772  the  Lord  Camden  was  de- 
tained from  17th  December  to  5th  January  following, 
in  cot^sequence  of  a  tumult,  in  which  several  Chi- 
nese and  Europeans  were  badly  hurt ;  the  wounded 
men  were  all  conveyed  into  the  factory,  where  two 
mandarins  examined  them.  The  ship  was  at  first 
detained,  but  permission  at  length  given  for  her 
sailing,  on  condition  that  the  person  who  originated 
the  mischief  was  detained  in  confinement  ;  but  the 
recoveiy  of  all  the  wounded  soon  after  put  an  end  to 
the  affair.  In  the  following  year  a  most  atrocious 
act  of    sanguinary  injustice   occurred  at   Macao, 


66  THE  CHINESE. 

stamping  indelible  disgrace  on  the  Portuguese  of 
that  place.  A  Chinese  had  lost  his  life,  and  some 
ungrounded  accusation  having  implicated  an  Eng- 
lishman, named  Francis  Scott,  the  local  authority 
caused  him  to  be  apprehended  and  confined.  The 
case  was  tried  in  the  Portuguese  court,  the  accused 
examined,  and  depositions  of  witnesses  taken ;  but 
the  slightest  trace  of  guilt  could  not  be  attached  to 
the  prisoner.  The  mandarins,  however,  obstinately 
claimed  him,  and  threatened  the  town  in  case  he 
was  not  delivered.  To  bring  this  perplexity  to  a 
close,  a  general  meeting  or  council  was  convened, 
and  a  member  of  the  Macao  senate  argued,  "it  is 
unjustifiable  to  consent  to  the  sacrifice  of  an  inno- 
cent man ;  and,  as  the  most  accurate  inquiry  suffi- 
ciently proves  that  the  Englishman  is  not  guilty, 
our  reasons  for  not  surrendering  him  should  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  mandarins,  and  persevered  in  until 
we  shall  have  succeeded  in  saving  him  from  an 
ignominious  death."  The  vicar-general,  however, 
named  Francisco  Vaz,  argued  in  the  following  sin- 
gular manner  : — "  Moralists  decide  that  when  a  ty- 
rant demands  even  an  innocent  person,  with  mena- 
ces of  ruin  to  the  community  if  refused,  the  whole 
number  may  call  on  any  individual  to  deliver  himself 
up  for  the  public  good,  which  is  of  more  worth  than 
the  life  of  an  individual.  Should  he  refuse  to  obey, 
he  is  not  innocent,  he  is  criminal."  Another  Por- 
tuguese observed,  with  still  less  ceremony,  "  The 
mandarins  are  forcing  away  the  Chinese  dealers, 
determined  to  starve  us  ;  therefore  we  had  better 
surrender  the  Englishman."  The  plurality  of  votes 
decided  that  Scott  should  be  handed  over,  and  the 
Chinese  put  him  to  death.* 

The  following  case  occurs  on  the  proceedings  of 
1780  : — "  14th  December.    Some  days  ago,  a  French 

*  Taken  from  a  "  Contribution  to  an  Historical  Sketch  of 
Macao."  1834. 


CHINESE    MAXIM.  67 

seaman  from  the  Success  galley,  country  ship,  killed 
a  Portuguese  sailor  belonging  to  the  Siormont,  in 
one  of  the  merchants'  houses.  The  man  took 
refuge  at  the  French  consul's,  where  he  remained 
many  days,  but  at  last  was  given  up  to  the  Chinese, 
and  was  this  morning  publicly  strangled  by  order 
of  the  fooyuen.  This  is  the  first  instance  of  one 
European  being  executed  for  the  murder  of  another 
in  this  country,  and  appears  to  be  a  very  dangerous 
precedent,  as  it  may  mvolve  us  in  inextricable 
difficulties,  if  even  by  accident  one  man  should  kill 
another.  The  man  executed  to-day  could  not  have 
had  any  trial  of  common  justice  :  the  affair  happen- 
ed between  him  and  the  deceased  in  Seunqua's  hong 
at  night,  nobody  knowing  of  the  quarrel  until  the 
StormonCs  man  was  killed ;  and  we  do  not  under- 
stand that  the  Chinese  government  took  any  means 
to  find  out  the  truth.  Foreigners  are  not  here 
allowed  the  benefit  of  the  Chinese  laws,  nor  have 
they  any  privileges  in  common  with  the  natives. 
They  are  governed  merely  by  such  rules  as  the 
mandarins  for  the  time  being  declare  to  be  their 
will ;  and  the  reason  why  more  inconveniences  do 
not  occur  is  this  : — the  officers  of  government  on 
such  occasions  rather  choose  to  exact  money  from 
the  security  merchants,  compradores,  &c.,  than 
use  harsh  measures  by  which  they  gain  nothing. 
Their  corruption,  therefore,  is  so  far  the  foreigner's 
security." 

The  fundamental  maxim  of  Chinese  intercourse 
with  foreigners  has  been  accurately  translated  by 
Pere  Premare  as  follows,  and  it  is  quite  sufficient 
to  explain  their  conduct.  "  Barbari  haud  secus  ac 
pecora  non  eodem  modo  regendi  sunt  ut  reguntur 
Sinae.  Si  quis  vellet  eos  magnis  sapientiae  legibus 
instruere,  nihil  aliud  quam  sum  mam  perturbationem 
induceret.  Antiqui  reges  istud  optime  callebant,  et 
ideo  barbaros  non  regendo  regebant.  Sic  autem  eos 
non  regendo  regere,  praeclara  eos  optime  regendi 


68  THE    CHINESE. 

ars  est."  That  is,  "  The  barbarians  are  like  beasts, 
and  not  to  he  ruled  on  the  same  principles  as  citizens. 
Were  any  one  to  attempt  controlling  them  by  the  great 
maxims  of  reason^  it  ivould  tend  to  nothing  but  confu- 
sion. The  ancient  kings  loell  understood  this,  and  ac- 
cordingly ruled  barbarians  by  misrule.  Therefore,  to 
rule  barbarians  by  misrule  is  the  true  and  best  way  of 
ruling  them.''''  It  is  on  this  principle  that  all  the 
benefits  of  Chinese  law  are  denied  to  strangers, 
and  that,  in  the  case  of  even  accidental  homicide, 
they  are  required  to  be  delivered  up,  not  for  trial, 
but  execution.  The  mischiefs  of  such  a  system 
are  obvious,  and  it  is  in  consequence  of  this  that 
acts  of  atrocious  violence,  on  the  part  of  foreigners, 
committed  by  them  under  the  plea  of  doing  them- 
selves right,  have  been  attempted  to  be  justified, 
though  coming  strictly  under  .the  definitions  of 
piracy,  murder,  or  arson,  which,  under  a  more  vig- 
orous government,  would  render  them  the  property 
of  the  public  executioner.  The  following  is  a  sin- 
gular instance  of  successful  daring.  In  the  year 
1781,  a  Captain  M'Clary,  master  of  a  country  ship 
from  Bengal,  had  stopped  a  sloop  on  her  way  from 
Macao  to  Manilla.  Being  on  shore  at  Macao,  he 
told  the  Portuguese  governor  that  he  had  ordered 
his  mate  to  bring  her  into  the  harbour  for  examina- 
tion, having  reason  to  suspect  that  she  was  Spanish 
property.  The  Portuguese  on  this  had  him  seized 
and  imprisoned  until  he  had  sent  an  order  for  the 
sloop  being  released  without  examination.  This 
order  being  taken  to  the  mate,  he  bore  down  to  the 
sloop  in  order  to  comply  with  it ;  but  it  blew  such 
a  gale  of  wind  that  the  sloop  got  adrift,  and  was 
wrecked  on  the  rocks.  M'Clary  upon  this  was 
detained  in  prison  for  two  months,  until,  by  ill 
treatment,  and  threats  of  being  delivered  to  the 
Chinese,  the  Portuguese  had  extorted  from  him  a 
payment  of  70,000  dollars,  under  the  pretence  of  its 
being  the  value  of  the  sloop.     Some  time  after  his 


CONDUCT    OF    m'cLARY.  69 

liberation,  while  M'Clary's  ship  was  lying  at  Wham- 
poa,  in  company  with  another  vessel  under  Dutch 
colours,  news  arrived  of  war  between  England  and 
Holland,  upon  which  he  seized  upon  the  Dutchman 
as  a  prize.  The  Canton  government  immediately 
demanded  restitution;  but  M'Claiy  told  them  that 
if  they  would  not  interfere,  the  duties  should  all  be 
paid  regularly ;  whereas,  if  they  molested  him,  he 
would  take  her  out  of  the  river.  On  the  Chinese 
insisting  that  he  should  restore  the  ship,  he  rigged 
her  and  began  to  drop  down  from  his  anchorage. 
There  was  immediately  a  great  bustle  among  the 
Chinese,  and  all  the  troops  available,  about  200, 
were  rendezvoused  at  Tiger  Island  to  intercept  his 
passage.  The  ship  in  the  meanwhile  was  sur- 
rounded by  mandarins  and  merchants,  and  when 
threats  and  civilities  had  all  failed,  the  Chinese 
being  very  anxious  for  a  compromise,  the  genius 
of  Ponkhequa,  chief  Hong  merchant,  devised  the 
following  expedient.  The  prize  being  close  to  the 
river's  mouth,  the  Chinese  were  allowed  to  board 
her  in  a  shouting  triumphant  manner ;  and  in  re- 
turn for  his  condescension,  M' Clary  was  permitted 
to  hold  an  iron  chest,  containing  pearls  and  gold, 
freighted  by  certain  Armenians. 

Meanwhile  the  company's  council  were  in  a 
very  unpleasant  situation,  being  held  responsible 
by  the  government  for  the  acts  of  M'Clary,  who 
certainly  was  little  better  than  a  pirate.  They  re- 
plied to  the  Chinese,  that  they  could  not  control , 
his  proceedings  otherwise  than  by  protests,  and 
very  properly  refused  the  demand  of  the  manda- 
rins, that  they  should  accompany  the  Chinese  offi- 
cers to  the  river  to  give  weight  to  their  measures. 
*'  The  more,"  it  is  observed,  "  they  perceived  their 
own  want  of  power  over  the  real  offender,  the  more 
they  appeared  resolved  to  exert  it  over  us,  whom 
they  had  been  accustomed  to  see  observant  of  all 
their  regulations."    An  application  was  made  by  the 


70  THE    CHINESE. 

Chinese  to  the  Portuguese  governor  of  Macao,  to 
deliver  them  up,  which  he  dechned,  and  a  conclusion 
was  at  length  put  to  these  difficulties  only  by  the 
circumstances  already  stated. 

Towards  the  year  1782,  the  large  sums  lent  by  the 
merchants  of  various  nations  to  Chinese,  at  a  high 
rate  of  interest,  had  occasioned  an  accumulation 
of  debts  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  amounting,  it  is 
said,  to  the  enormous  extent  of  a  million  sterling. 
Among  the  creditors  Avere  numerous  individuals 
connected  with  the  trade  of  the  Indian  presiden- 
cies :  and  these,  after  a  course  of  fruitless  measures 
for  the  recovery  of  the  property  at  Canton,  applied, 
through  the  Indian  government,  to  the  admiral  on 
the  station,  Sir  Edward  Vernon,  for  his  assistance. 
A  frigate  was  accordingly  despatched  to  China, 
bearing  a  remonstrance  to  the  viceroy ;  and  after  a 
reference  of  the  subject  to  Peking,  an  edict  was 
received  from  the  emperor,  ordering  the  liquidation 
of  the  debts  by  the  whole  body  of  Hong  merchants, 
as  well  as  interdicting  any  one  of  them  from  bor- 
rowing money  for  the  future  from  strangers.  The 
debts  were  at  length  recovered,  but  so  little  effectual 
was  the  interdict  that  repeated  failures  of  Hong 
merchants,  for  very  large  sums  due  to  Europeans, 
occurred  up  to  the  year  182Q. 

Among  the  unhappy  cases  which  have  arisen 
from  the  sanguinary  practice  of  the  Canton  govern- 
ment in  the  instances  of  homicides,  whether  acci- 
dental or  otherwise,  when  committed  by  Europeans, 
the  most  remarkable,  perhaps,  is  that  frequently  al- 
luded to  under  the  name  of  the  gunner''s  case,  in 
1784.  On  the  24th  Novem.ber  in  that  year,  inform- 
ation reached  Canton  that  a  chop  boat,  alongside 
the  Lady  Hughes,  country  ship,  being  in  the  way  of 
a  gun  fired  in  saluting,  three  Chinese  had  been  badly 
injured.  On  the  following  day  it  was  learned  that 
one  had  died ;  and  the  gunner,  though  entirely  in- 
nocent of  any  bad  intent,  and  acting  as  he  di(i  in 


THE  GUNNER   IN   1784.  71 

obedience  to  orders,  absconded  from  fear  of  the 
indiscriminating  cruelty  of  the  Chinese.  A  zceiyuen, 
or  deputed  mandarin,  soon  waited  on  the  chief  of 
the  factory,  Mr.  Pigou,  and,  with  the  interpretation 
of  the  Hong  merchants,  required  that  the  man 
should  be  submitted  to  examination,  admitting,  at 
the  same  time,  that  his  act  had  apparently  proceed- 
ed from  mere  accident.  The  mandarin  was  inform- 
ed that  there  appeared  no  objection  to  the  man's 
examination,  provided  that  it  took  place  in  the  fac- 
tory ;  a  stipulation  which  was  founded  on  the  recol- 
lection of  what  had  occurred  in  the  Frenchman's 
case  in  1780.  Two  days  after  the  weiyuen  repeat- 
ed his  visit,  accompanied  by  Ponkhequa,  Hong  mer- 
chant, with  the  same  demands ;  he  was  informed 
that  the  Lady  Hughes,  being  a  private  ship,  was  not 
to  the  same  degree  under  the  control  of  the  chief 
Hs  a  company's  vessel ;  but  that,  if  they  Avould  be 
satisfied  with  an  examination  in  the  factoiy,  every 
persuasion  should  be  used  to  induce  the  supercargo 
of  the  ship,  Mr.  Smith,  to  produce  the  man.  The 
Chinese  declared  that  the  trial  must  be  before  the 
fooyuen  in  the  city,  and  at  length  retired,  request- 
ing that  Mr.  Smith  niight  not  leave  Canton  for  three 
or  four  days,  to  which  he  assented.  At  eleven  the 
same  night  they  returned  to  say  that  the  man  should 
be  examined  in  one  of  the  factories ;  but  the  event 
soon  proved  that  this  Avas  merely  to  lull  their  sus- 
picions, for  early  the  next  morning  it  was  found 
that  Mr.  Smith  had  been  decoyed  from  his  factory 
by  a  pretended  message  from  Ponkhequa,  and  con- 
veyed into  the  city  by  force.  Meanwhile  the  ave- 
nues leading  to  the  river  had  been  barricaded,  the 
merchants  and  linguists  had  fled,  and  the  commu- 
nication with  Whampoa  was  suspended. 

The  heads  of  ail  the  foreign  factories  justly  con- 
sidering this  as  a  very  threatening  proceeding  to 
the  whole  European  community,  united  in  a  resolu- 
tion to  order  up  the  boats  of  the  several  ships,  man- 


72  THE  CHINESE. 

lied  and  armed,  both  as  a  security,  and  to  manifest 
in  the  strongest  manner  the  light  in  which  they 
viewed  the  acts  of  the  government.  Two  English 
boats  were  despatched  to  Whampoa  to  carry  this 
into  effect.  The  watchful  Chinese  now  endeavour- 
ed to  quiet  them  by  a  message  from  the  fooyuen, 
to  the  purport  that  ihey  should  not  be  alarmed  by 
the  seizure  of  the  Lady  Hughes's  supercargo,  as  the 
intention  was  merely  to  ask  him  a  few  questions 
and  send  him  back  again.  The  greater  number  of 
ships'  boats  reached  Canton,  although  attempts 
were  made  to  prevent  them,  by  firing  from  the 
junks  and  forts  in  the  river,  and  notwithstanding 
their  having  been  absurdly  ordered  to  use  no  arms 
in  their  own  defence.  A  very  bombastic  document 
was  received  from  the  fooyuen,  threatening  de- 
struction if  any  opposition  were  made,  and  a  show 
of  force  at  the  same  time  assembled  in  the  river 
before  the  factories.  On  the  28th  the  foreigners 
all  joined  in  an  address  in  behalf  of  Mr.  Smith,  and 
in  the  evening  the  fooyuen  desired  to  see  a  depu- 
tation from  the  factory  of  the  several  nations. 
These  reported  that  "  his  behaviour  was  much  agita- 
ted, and  it  was  evident  he  would  be  glad  to  get 
handsomely  out  of  the  business."  The  Chinese 
were,  in  fact,  frightened  at  their  own  boldness,  and 
a  little  resolution  on  the  other  side  might  have  saved 
the  man's  life. 

A  linguist  soon  amved  at  the  factory,  bringing  a 
letter  from  Mr.  Smith  to  the  captain  of  his  ship, 
desiring  he  would  send  up  the  gunner,  or  some 
other  person,  to  be  tried  by  the  mandarins ;  and 
this  was  forwarded  on  the  29th  to  Whampoa,  backed 
by  a  letter  from  the  council.  On  the  30th  the  unfor- 
tunate gunner,  an  old  man,  was  brought  to  Canton 
and  sent  into  the  city,  with  an  address,  "signed  by 
the  English  council,  and  the  representatives  of  the 
foreign  nations,"  in  his  favour.  He  was  received  by 
a  mandarin  of  superior  rank,  y^ho  verbally  stated  that 


DEATH  OF  COLONEL  CATHCART.      73 

no  apprehensions  need  be  entertained  as  to  his 
life,  and  that,  when  the  emperor's  answer  had  been 
obtained,  he  should  be  restored.  In  about  an  hour 
after  Mr,  Smith  returned  to  his  factory,  stating  that 
he  had  been  very  civilly  treated.  On  the  8th  Janu- 
ary following  The  unhappy  gunner  was  strangled  ! 

This  was  the  last  instance  of  the  kind  to  which 
the  Enghsh  had  to  submit  in  China,  although  not 
the  last  which  has  occurred  at  Canton;  for  the  case 
of  the  poor  innocent  Italian,  Terranova,  given  up 
by  the  Americans  in  1821,  was  very  similar.  Our 
own  countrymen,  warned  of  whkt  they  had  to 
expect  from  Chinese  justice  and  good  faith,  have  on 
all  subsequent  occasions  been  ready  to  undergo  any 
extremities  rather  than  be  parties  to  the  death  of 
an  innocent  man ;  and  their  exertions  have  in  sev- 
eral instances  been  crowned  with  signal  success. 
Soon  after  the  above  unfortunate  occurrence,  in 
1784,  the  attention  of  the  British  government  was 
naturally  drawn  to  the  grooving  ma<§iiitude  and  im- 
portance of  the  trade  at  Canton :  and  it  cannot  be 
denied  that,  since  the  mission  of  Lord  Macartney 
to  Peking,  the  general  condition  of  the  Enghsh 
at  that  place  has  been  considerably  bettered.  It 
was  in  fact  only  four  years  after  the  death  of  the 
gunner  that  Colonel  Cathcart  was  sent  from  Eng- 
land (in  1788),  in  the  Vestal  frigate,  as  ambassador 
to  China.^  His  death  on  the  passage  out,  in  the 
Straits  of'  Sunda,  put  an  entire  stop  to  the  mission 
for  the  time,  and  the  frigate  returned  lo  England  ;* 
nor  was  it  until  1792  that  the  project  was  renewed 
on  a  larger  scale.  In  the  month  of  January  of  that 
year,  Mr.  Dundas  set  on  foot  the  proposal  of  a 
Chinese  embassy,  grounded  on  the  consideration 
of  our  trade  having  gradually  increased  until  its  ac- 

♦  The  tomb  of  Colonel  Cathcart  is  still  marked  by  a  hand- 
some  monument,  visible  from  the  anchorage  of  ships  at  Anjier 
Point. 

Vol.  L— G 


74  THE    CHINESE. 

tual  araount  exceeded  that  of  all  other  nations ;  to 
which  it  was  added,  that  the  intercourse  of  almost 
every  other  country  with  that  empire  had  been  at- 
tended with  special  missions  to  Peking.  It  was 
hoped  that  such  a  measure  might  relax  the  various 
trammels  by  which  the  commerce  with  China  was 
shackled,  relieve  it  from  some  of  its  exactions,  and 
place  our  countrymen  at  Canton  on  a  footing  of 
greater  respectability,  as  well  as  security,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  local  government.  Lord  Macartney  ac- 
cordingly proceeded  from  England  in  the  Lion,  a 
sixty-four  gun  ship,  in  September,  1792,  accompa- 
nied by  Sir  George  Leonard  Staunton  as  secretary 
of  legation.  The  occurrences  and  result  of  that 
embassy  are  so  well  known  from  the  celebrated 
work  of  the  last-named  individual,  as  well  as  from 
the  relation  of  Mr.  Barrow,  that  it  would  be  super- 
fluous to  dwell  upon  them  here.  One  of  the  princi- 
pal effects  of  the  mission  was  to  draw  a  much 
greater  share  of  the  public  attention  towards  China, 
and  to  lead  gradually  to  the  study  of  the  language, 
literature,  institutions,  and  manners  of  that  vast  and 
singular  empire— a  field  which  had  hitherto  been 
occupied  almost  exclusively  by  the  French. 


OBJECTS  OP    THE  EMBASSY  OF   1793.         75 


CHAPTER  III. 

ENGLISH  INTERCOURSE (CONTINUED). 

Objects  and  Results  of  the  Embassy  of  1793.— Affair  of  the 
Providence  Schooner. — American  Flag  hoisted  in  1802,  hauled 
down  in  1832.— First  Expedition  to  Macao. — Mission  to  Co- 
chin-China.— Admiral  Linois  repulsed  by  China  Fleet.— La- 
drones,  or  Chinese  Pirates. — A  Chinese  killed  by  a  Sailor, 
who  is  not  delivered  up. — Second  Expedition  to  Macao.— Ill 
Success  of  Admiral  Drury. — Interdict  against  Mr.  Roberts  at 
Canton. — A  Linguist  seized. — His  Majesty's  ship  Doris. — 
Trade  stopped  by  the  Committee,  who  succeed  in  their  ob- 
jects.— Mission  of  Lord  Amherst.— Question  of  the  Ko-tow.— 
Forts  silenced  by  the  Alceste  Frigate. — Cases  of  Homicide  in 
1820  and  1821. — His  Majesty's  ship  Topaz. — Trade  reopened, 
— Fire  of  Canton. — Failure  of  Hong  Merchants. — Dissensions 
with  Chinese. — Factory  invaded  by  Fooyuen. — Letter  from 
Governor-general  to  Viceroy.  —  Voyage  of  the  Amherst.  — 
Fighting  between  Smuggling  Ships  and  Chinese. — Termina- 
tion of  the  Company's  Charter. 

One  of  the  principal  objects  of  Earl  Macartney's 
mission  to  Peking  was  to  obtain,  if  possible,  the 
permission  of  the  emperor  to  trade  at  Ningpo,  Chu- 
san,  Tien-tsin,  and  other  places  besides  Canton. 
All  discussions  upon  these  points,  and  indeed  every 
matter  of  business,  were  studiously  avoided  by  the 
Chinese  ministers  and  mandarins  during  the  resi- 
dence of  the  embassy  at  Peking ;  but,  in  his  letter 
to  the  King  of  England,  the  emperor  did  not  omit  to 
state  distinctly  that  the  British  commerce  must  be 
strictly  limited  to  the  port  of  Canton.  "  You  will 
not  be  able  to  complain,"  adds  he,  "  that  I  had  not 
clearly  forewarned  you.  Let  us  therefore  live  in 
peace  and  friendship,  and  do  not  make  light  of  my 
words." 

Were  a  judgment  to  be  formed  from  the  experi- 


76  THE    CHINESE. 

merit  which  took  place,  in  that  same  year,  to  trade 
at  Chusan  with  the  specific  leave  of  the  emperor, 
the  privilege  would  not  seem  to  be  a  very  valuable 
one.  Captain  Mackintosh,  of  the  company's  ship 
Hindostan,  who  attended  his  majesty's  ship  Lion  to 
the  Yellow  Sea,  had  free  license  to  trade  at  Chusan 
if  he  pleased  (on  that  particular  occasion),  and  the 
ship  was  freed  from  all  duties  and  port-charges,  as 
pertaining  to  the  embassy.  He  accordingly  went 
there,*  and  "  found  the  mandarins  and  people  per- 
fectly well  disposed  to  comply  with  the  emperor's 
orders  in  respect  to  the  privileges  to  be  granted  to 
the  caplain  and  his  officers  in  the  purchase  of  a 
cargo  there ;  and  tea  and  silk  were  much  cheaper 
than  elsewhere :  but  the  Chusan  traders  were  not 
prepared  for  so  extensive  a  concern  as  a  cargo  of 
goods  fitted  for  the  European  market  to  fill  a  ship 
of  the  size  of  the  Ilmdostan,  full  1200  tons,  nor  for 
the  purchase  of  the  European  goods  on  board  her, 
better  calculated  for  a  larger  city.  They  would 
therefore  expect  specie  for  most  of  the  articles  they 
could  furnish  for  the  Hindostan,  which  had  not  been 
provided  by  her  commander.  He  found  it  therefore 
expedient  to  proceed  to  Canton." 

As  it  was  hoped  that  the  embassy  had  not  been 
without  its  elTect  in  conciliating  the  good- will  of  the 
Chinese  government  to  the  British  trade,  it  was  re- 
solved, shortly  afterward,  to  follow  it  up  by  a  lettei 
from  his  majesty  to  the  emperor,  accompanied  by 
presents.  These  accordingly  reached  Canton  in 
January,  1795,  with  letters  and  presents  from  the 
ministers,  and  the  chairman  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, to  the  viceroy ;  and  the  whole  were  conveyed 
into  the  city  by  the  chief  of  the  British  factory. 
The  viceroy  received  the  address  to  the  emperor 
with  much  satisfaction,  and  forwarded  it,  together 
with  the  presents,  to  Peking,  from  whence  a  reply, 

♦  Staunton's  Embassy,  vol.  ii.,  p.  523. 


The  Emperor  Kien-loong. 


AFFAIR  OF  THE  PHOVIDENCE  79 

with  corresponding  presents,  was  afterward  re- 
turned. Objections,  however,  were  made  to  accept- 
ing the  letters  and  gifts  intended  for  the  heads  of 
the  Canton  government,  on  the  ground  of  its  not 
being  allowable  for  Chinese  ministers  to  entertain 
a  correspondence  with  the  officers  of  a  foreign  gov- 
ernment. It  was  recorded  on  this  occasion,  as  well 
as  on  a  subsequent  one  in  1805,  that  tribute  had  been 
sent  by  the  King  of  England  to  the  "  Son  of  Heaven," 
and  the  record  was  quoted  not  long  since  by  the 
Canton  government  in  an  official  paper  addressed 
to  the  writer  of  this,  as  president  of  the  select  com- 
mittee in  China,  who  stated,  of  course,  in  reply, 
that  presents  had  been  sent,  but  no  tribute. 

No  untoward  events  occurred,  for  several  years 
subsequent  to  the  embassy,  to  interrupt  the  quiet 
progress  of  commercial  affairs  at  Canton.  The 
mandarins  had  improved  in  their  conduct  towards 
the  merchants,  and  the  highly  objectionable  measure 
of  stopping"the  trade  on  the  most  trifling  occasions 
had  not  been  lately  resorted  to  by  the  Chinese. 
At  the  same  time,  some  of  the  heaviest  burdens  on 
the  European  trade  still  continued,  being  too  profit- 
able to  both  the  local  government  and  the  Hong 
merchants  to  be  readily  abandoned  by  them.  The 
most  objectionable  of  these  were,  the  Consoo  fund, 
arising  from  a  rate  which  the  Hongs  were  permitted 
to  levj'  upon  the  foreign  commerce,  in  order  to 
meet  the  heavy  demands  of  the  government  on 
themselves  ;  and  the  inordinate  amount  of  the  port- 
charges  and  fees. 

An  unfortunate  occurrence,  however,  in  1800, 
threatened  for  some  time  to  place  British  affairs  at 
Canton  in  some  jeopardy,  although  proceeding,  as 
very  usual  on  such  occasions,  from  the  fault  of  the 
natives.  While  his  majesty's  schooner  Providence 
was  lying  at  Whampoa,  a  party  of  Chinese  in  a 
small  boat  appeared  one  night  to  be  attempting  to 
cut  the  schooner's  cable.     As  they  returned  no 


80  THE    CHINESE. 

answer  on  being  harled,  a  shot  was  fired  into  the 
boat,  by  which  one  Chinese  was  wounded,  and  an- 
other, who  jumped  overboard  in  his  fright,  was 
drowned.  The  government,  as  usual,  demanded  that 
the  person  who  fired  the  musket  should  be  delivered 
up ;  but  Captain  Dilkes,  who  was  then  in  China, 
commanding  his  majesty's  ship  Madras,  required, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  the  Chinese  in  the  boat 
should  be  punished  for  their  delinquency;  and  re- 
fused to  deliver  up  the  seaman,  or  even  to  allow 
him  to  be  tried,  except  in  his  own  presence.  The 
wounded  Chinese  at  length  recovered,  and  so  the 
correspondence  closed ;  but,  some  time  afterward, 
an  abstract  of  the  Chinese  law  relating  to  homicide 
was  handed  to  the  select  committee  by  the  local 
government;  although  the  shameful  injustice  and 
perfidy  with  which,  on  several  occasions,  the  man- 
darins had  treated  foreigners  accused  of  such  of- 
fences, gave  them  no  right  to  expect  that  their 
laws  should  be  much  attended  to. 

It  was  in  the  year  1802  that  the  American  flag 
was  first  hoisted  at  Canton.  The  consular  agent 
for  the  United  States,  who  was,  in  all  cases,  ap- 
pointed from  among  the  American  merchants  resi- 
dent in  China,  was  simply  a  commercial  officer,  and 
called  a  Tae-pan,  or  factory  chief,  by  the  Chinese. 
He  received  no  salary  whatever  from  his  govern- 
ment, but  was  permitted  to  levy  fees  in  the  transac- 
tion of  business  with  his  countrymen,  besides  tra- 
ding on  his  own  account.  The  American  flag  con- 
tinued to  fly  at  Canton  until  very  lately,  notwith- 
standing the  interruption  which  the  trade  of  the 
United  States,  for  some  time  previous  to  1815,  ex- 
perienced by  the  war  with  England ;  but  in  the  year 
»1832  a  dispute  occurred  between  the  consul  for  the 
time  being  and  the  captain  of  an  American  frigate 
then  on  a  visit  to  China.  The  captain  having  failed 
to  call  upon  the  consul,  the  latter  took  off'ence  on  the 
occasion,  and  the  two  republicans  were  too  tena- 


EXPEDITION  TO  MACAO.  81 

cious  of  their  respective  ranks  and  dignities  to  come 
to  an  accommodation.  The  flag  was  struck,  and  the 
consul  proceeded  home. 

An  occurrence  of  some  importance,  in  1802, 
tended  to  estabhsh,  beyond  all  doubt,  a  point  which 
had  sometimes  been  questioned ;  and  this  was 
the  nature  of  the  tenure  on  which  the  Portuguese 
held  Macao  of  the  Chinese.  It  was  in  that  year 
that  Lord  Wellesley,  Governor-general  of  India, 
being  apprehensive  that  the  French  republic  had 
some  designs  against  the  Portuguese  establishments 
in  the  East,  considered  it  necessary  to  garrison  the 
principal  settlements  of  our  "ancient  ally"  with 
British  troops ;  and  accordingly  an  expedition  was 
sent  from  Bengal  to  take  Macao  under  our  protec- 
tion. The  Portuguese  would  iiave  admitted  the  of- 
fered aid — indeed,  they  had  uot  the  power  to  refuse 
it — but  the  leave  of  the  real  masters  had  never 
been  asked.  The  Viceroy  of  Canton  indignantly 
repelled  the  idea  of  any  portion  of  the  Chinese 
empire  needing  aid  from  foreigners,  and  required 
the  troops  immediately  to  depart.  In  the  mean- 
while it  fortunately  happened  that  the  brig  Tele- 
graph,  despatched  by  the  court  of  directors  with 
news  of  the  peace  in  Europe,  arrived  off  Macao,  and 
the  whole  of  the  troops  accordingly  returned  at  once 
to  Bengal  on  the  3d  of  July.  The  Portuguese  did 
not  fail  on  this  occasion  to  carry  on  their  customary 
intrigues  with  the  Chinese  government,  with,  whom 
they  did  their  best  to  ingratiate  themselves,  by  mis- 
representing the  views  and  designs  of  the  English. 
An  unfortunate  priest,  named  Rodrigues,  from  whose 
knowledge  of  the  Chinese  language  considerable 
assistance  had  been  derived  during  the  stay  of  the 
expedition,  was  in  consequence  so  persecuted  by 
his  countrymen  that  he  was  compelled  to  quit  the 
place.  The  Portuguese,  however,  have  since  had 
ample  leisure  to  repent  their  short-sighted  and  nar- 
row policy  towards  our  countrymen,  which  had  the 


82  THE    CHINESE. 

effect  of  driving  the  whole  of  the  Indian  opium- 
trade  from  Macao  to  Lintin,  and  thereby  depriving 
the  former  place  of  its  most  fertile,  and  indeed  only^ 
source  of  wealth. 

The  advantages  of  estabUshing,  if  possible,  some 
commercial  relations  with  the  King  of  Cochin-china, 
on  the  part  of  the  British,  had  been  a  subject  of  at- 
tention for  some  time,  when  the  present  Lord  Strath- 
allan,  at  that  period  Mr.  Drummond,  president  of 
the  select  committee  at  Canton,  appointed  Mr.  Rob- 
erts, a  member  of  the  factory,  to  proceed  on  that 
service  in  November,  1803.  That  gentleman  was 
directed  to  attend  to  the  instructions  of  the  Govern- 
or-general of  India,  from  w^hom  he  was  the  bearer 
of  a  letter  to  the  Cochin-chinese  king.  Mr.  Rob- 
erts was  civilly  received,  and  met  with  much  liberal 
and  friendly  assistance  from  the  French  missiona- 
ries at  Hue-foo,  the  capital.  He  had  two  audiences 
of  the  king,  with  an  interchange  of  presents ;  but  the 
council,  with  the  usual  cautious  and  exclusive  spirit 
of  the  ultra-gangetic  nations,  would  not  consent  to 
any  written  treaty  of  commerce ;  and  the  envoy 
returned  to  Canton,  after  some  months'  residence, 
without  having  been  able  to  establish  the  ends  con- 
templated :  nor  was  the  more  recent  expedition  of 
Mr.  John  Crawfurd,  to  the  same  country,  attended 
with  any  better  success.  It  appeared,  subsequently 
to  Mr.  Roberts's  mission,  that  reports  prejudicial  to 
the  English  were  raised  by  a  Portuguese  of  Macao, 
named  D'Abrio,  stating  that  they  meditated  an  at- 
tack on  the  country.  IMuch  alarm  was  excited,  and, 
when  the  Discovery  surveying  vessel  appeared  on 
the  coast,  refreshments  were  denied  to  her. 

The  considerable  naval  force  which  had  been 
maintained  by  France  in  the  eastern  seas  for  the 
annoyance  of  our  India  and  China  trade,  had  direct- 
ed the  particular  attention  of  the  company  to  the 
due  arming  of  their  ships,  and  an  occasion  occurred, 
in  1805,  when  the  efficiency  of  those  noble  vessels 


LADRONES,  OR    CHINESE  PIRATES.  83 

was  signally  proved.  The  China  fleet,  consisting 
of  sixteen  sail,  under  the  command  of  the  senior 
officer,  Captain  Dance,  was  homeward  bomid  on  the 
15th  February,  when  it  fell  in  with  the  French 
squadron,  under  Admiral  Linois,  who  had  been 
cruising  for  some  time  to  the  north  of  the  straits, 
with  the  express  view  of  cutting  them  off.  The 
fleet,  of  which  most  of  the  ships  mounted  thirty 
guns  and  upwards,  formed  in  order  of  battle,  and 
advanced  boldly  to  the  engagement,  the  van  being 
led  by  Captain  Timins  of  the  Royal  Geoi-ge,  wjio 
engaged  the  admiral's  ship,  a  vessel  of  eighty  guns, 
and  received  upwards  of  sixty  shot  in  his  hull  and 
rigging.  The  fight  concluded  by  the  French  squad- 
ron setting  all  sail,  and  leaving  the  English  in  quiet 
possession  of  the  field,  as  well  as  of  the  immense 
amount  of  national  property  of  which  they  were  in 
charge.  The  commodore  of  the  fleet  was  knighted 
in  approbation  of  his  gallant  conduct,  and  the  com- 
manders of  all  the  ships  presented  with  swords,  and 
other  marks  of  distinction.  This  higlily  respectable 
service  has  been  dissolved  by  the  operation  of  the 
act  which  deprived  the.  East  India  Company  of 
their  former  privileges. 

About  this  period,  or  shortly  afterward,  commen- 
ced the  career  of  the  Chinese  pirates,  called,  after 
the  Portuguese  of  Macao,  Ladrones,  wh<^  for  some 
years  spread  terror  along  the  coasts  of  the  Canton 
province,  and  even  up  the  river  itself,  as  far  as  the 
city.  The  southern  shores  of  China,  from  the  in- 
numerable islands  with  which  they  are  studded, 
have  always  given  employment  and  shelter  to  a 
hardy  race  of  fishermen,  whose  poverty,  joined  to 
their  independent  habits,  has  at  different  periods  led 
them  to  combine  in  large  bodies  for  piratical  pur- 
poses, in  defiance  of  the  weak  and  inefiicien4;  mari- 
time force  by  which  the  coasts  of  the  empire  are 
guarded.  The  power  of  the  celebrated  leader  Ko- 
shiiiga,  and  his  successes  against  the  Dutch  settlers 


84  THE  CHINESE. 

on  Formosa  during  the  seventeenth  century,  have 
been  ah-eady  noticed ;  and  a  squadron  scarcely  less 
formidable  was  destined  to  appear  during  the  period 
which  elapsed  between  1806  and  1810-  Very  par- 
ticular accounts  have  been  obtained  of  these  singu- 
lar freebooters,  not  only  from  a  Chinese  work,  but 
from  the  personal  narratives  of  Messrs.  Turner  and 
Glasspoole,  two  Englishmen  who  had  the  misfor- 
tune to  fall  into  their  hands,  and  who  were  com- 
pelled under  pain  of  death  to  attend  the  pirates  in 
all  their  expeditions. 

But  however  great  their  contempt  for  the  imperi- 
al fleet  of  China,  or  any  other  native  force  to  which 
they  might  be  opposed,  these  Ladrones  never  wil- 
lingly engaged  a  European  vessel  larger  than  a 
boat,  and  the  following  observations  of  the  Empe- 
ror Kanghy  seem  to  show  that  their  predecessors 
in  his  time  were  equally  cautious.  "We  have  late- 
ly heard,  from  the  pirate  who  surrendered  and  threw 
himself  upon  our  mercy,  that  when  his  companions 
went  to  plunder  vessels  on  the  seas,  it  was  their 
practice" to  avoid  all  European  ships,  being  afraid  of 
their  fire-arms,"  &c.  The  force  and  number  of  the 
later  squadron  of  freebooters  have  been  pretty  ac- 
curately ascertained  from  the  accounts  of  Messrs. 
Glasspoole  and  Turner.  Their  junks  or  vessels 
amounted  in  1810  to  about  600  of  various  sizes, 
from  80  to  300  tons,  of  which  the  largest  seldom 
mounted  more  than  twelve  guns,  varying  from  six 
to  eighteen  pounders,  which  had  been  either  pur- 
chased from  European  ships,  or  taken  from  the  Chi- 
nese ;  but  chiefly  the  latter.  Their  hand  arms 
were  pikes,  with  bamboo  shafts,  from  fourteen  to 
eighteen  feet  long,  and  they  used,  besides,  the  com- 
mon Chinese  pike,  with  a  handle  of  solid  wood,  and 
an  iron  point,  consisting  of  a  slightly  curved  blade. 
They  had  also  short  stabbing-swords,  not  two  feet 
in  length.  Their  guns,  as  usual,  were  mounted  on 
solid  timber,  without  trucks,  breechings,  or  tackles, 


LADRONES,    OR    CHINESE    PIRATES.  85 

and  run  out  right  abeam,  so  as  to  be  fired  only  when 
they  could  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  object,  by 
wearing  the  vessel!  The  broadside  being  fired, 
they  hauled  off  to  reload,  which  is  a  difficult  and 
tedious  operation  with  the  Chinese.  The  largest 
junks  carried  between  100  and  200  men,  and  were 
furnished  each  with  an  armed  boat  for  committing 
depredations  among  the  towns  and  villages  on  shore. 
Few  narratives  can  be  more  interesting  than  that 
of  Mr.  Glasspoole,  which  was  published  in  the  Uni- 
ted Service  Journal,  but  which  cannot  be  detailed 
in  this  place.  Both  that  gentleman  and  Mr.  Turner 
were  ransomed  for  considerable  sums  by  their 
friends  at  Canton,  and  escaped  happily  to  relate 
their  singular  captivity  and  adventures. 

Not  the  least  remarkable  feature  about  this  for- 
midable fleet  of  pirates  was  its  being,  subsequent  to 
the  death  of  its  original  chief,  very  ably  governed 
by  his  wife,  who  appointed  her  lieutenants  for  ac- 
tive service.  A  very  severe  code  of  laws  for  the 
government  of  the  squadron,  or  of  its  several  divis- 
ions, was  enforced,  and  a  regular  appropriation 
made  of  all  captured  property.  Marriages  were 
strictly  observed,  and  all  promiscuous  intercourse 
and  violence  to  women  rigorously  punished.  Pass- 
es were  granted  to  the  Chinese  junks  or  boats  which 
submitted  to  the  pirates ;  but  all  such  as  were  cap- 
tured in  government  vessels,  and  indeed  all  who 
opposed  them,  were  treated  with  the  most  dreadful 
cruelty.  At  the  height  of  their  power  they  levied 
contributions  on  most  of  the  towns  along  the  coast, 
and  spread  teiTor  up  the  river  to  the  neighbourhood 
of  Canton.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  British  fac- 
tory could  not  venture  to  move  in  their  boats  be- 
tween that  place  and  Macao  without  protection ;  and 
to  the  Ladrones,  therefore,  may  be  partly  attribu- 
ted the  origin  of  the  valuable  survey  of  the  Chinese 
seas  by  Captain  Ross ;  as  the  two  cruisers  which 
wer^  sent  from  Bombay,  at  the  select  committee's. 

Vol.  I.— H 


86  THE    CHINESE. 

requisition,  to  act  against  the  pirates,  were  subse* 
quently  employed  by  them  in  that  work  of  public 
utility,  the  benefits  of  which  have  been  felt  by  the 
whole  commercial  world. 

Finding  that  its  power  was  utterly  unavailing 
against  the  growing  strength  of  the  Lad  rones,  the 
Chinese  government  published  a  general  amnesty- 
to  such  as  would  submit  and  return  to  their  allegi- 
ance ;  a  stroke  of  policy  which  may  be  attributed 
to  its  acquaintance  with  the  fact,  that  a  serious  dis- 
sension had  broken  out  between  the  two  principal 
commanders  of  the  pirate  forces.  This  proceeded 
even  to  the  length  of  the  black  and  red  squadrons 
(which  they  respectively  headed)  engaging  in  a 
bloody  combat,  wherein  the  former  was  discomfit- 
ed. The  weaker  of  the  two  now  submitted  to  ac- 
cept the  offers  of  the  government,  which  promised 
free  pardon,  and  kept  its  engagements ;  the  leader 
was  even  raised  to  some  rank  in  the  emperor's  ser- 
vice !  Being  thus  weakened  by  the  desertion  of 
nearly  half  her  forces,  the  female  chieftain  and  her 
other  lieutenant  did  not  much  longer  hold  out.  The 
Ladrones  who  had  submitted  were  employed  by  the 
crafty  government  against  their  former  associates, 
who  were  harassed  by  the  stoppage  of  their  sup- 
plies, and  other  difficulties,  and  a  few  more  months 
saw  the  whole  remaining  force  accept  the  proffered 
amnesty.  Thus  easily  was  dissolved  an  association 
which  at  one  time  threatened  the  empire  :  but  as 
the  sources  and  circumstances,  whence  piracy  has 
more  than  once  sprung  up,  are  still  in  existence, 
the  success  and  impunity  of  their  predecessors  may 
encourage  other  bands  of  maritime  robbers  to  unite 
in  a  similar  confederacy  at  no  distant  period. 

A  considerable  number  of  years  had  elapsed 
since  the  occurrence  of  one  of  those  homicides, 
which,  even  when  accidental,  always  proves  so  se- 
rious and  embarrassing  to  the  trade  at  Canton ;  but 
in  the  month  of  March,  1807,  a  case  happened  which 


A    CHINESE    KILLED    BY    A    SAILOR.  87 

showed  in  the  strongest  light  the  consequences 
which  may  at  any  time  result  from  the  riotous  and 
unruly  conduct  of  our  seamen  on  shore,  subject  as 
they  are  in  China  to  be  supplied  on  the  cheapest 
terms  with  ardent  spirits,  called  samshoo,  generally 
adulterated  with  ingredients  of  a  stimulating  and 
maddening  quality.  A  portion  of  the  crew  of  the 
ship  Neptune  had  been  drinking  at  a  spirit-shop,  and 
a  skirmish  soon  took  place  with  the  Chinese,  upon 
which  the  men  were  collected  as  soon  as  possible 
by  their  officers,  and  confined  within  their  quarters. 
The  idle  Chinese,  however,  assembled  in  great 
numbers  before  the  factory,  and  pelted  the  gates, 
as  well  as  every  European  who  passed,  notwith- 
standing the  presence  of  some  Hong  merchants, 
who  had  been  summoned  on  the  occasion.  The  con- 
fined sailors  at  length  losing  patience,  broke  through 
all  restraint  and  sallied  out  on  the  mob,  whom  they 
scattered  in  an  instant,  and  one  Chinese  was  knock- 
ed so  rudely  on  the  head  that  he  died. 

The  trade,  as  usual,  was  stopped  by  the  Chinese, 
and  the  Hong  merchant,  who  secured  the  Neptune, 
held  answerable  by  the  government  for  the  delivery 
of  the  offender.  Nothing  could  be  elicited  as  to 
the  identity  of  the  individual,  in  a  court  of  inquiry 
held  on  board  the  Neptune.  The  mandarins  at  first 
demanded  that  the  men  should  be  tried  within  the 
city,  but  the  case  of  the  poor  gunner  was  retorted 
upon  them,  and  the  thing  was  declared  to  be  im- 
possible. It  was  at  length  arranged  that  an  exam- 
ination should  take  place  within  the  factory,  before 
Chinese  judges,  but  in  the  presence  of  the  select 
committee,  and  Captain  Rolles,  of  his  majesty's  ship 
the  Lion,  who  were  provided  with  seats  in  court, 
while  two  marines  with  fixed  bayonets  stood  sen- 
tries. 

Eleven  of  the  men,  it  was  proved,  had  been  more 
violent  than  the  rest,  but  no  individual  could  be 
marked  as  the  actual  homicide,  though  the  Chinese 


88  THE    CHINESE. 

Still  demanded  that  a  man  should  be  given  up.  It 
was  at  length  settled  that  one  of  the  eleven,  named 
Edward  Sheen,  should  remain  in  custody  of  the 
committee  :  the  understanding  at  first  was,  that  a 
fine  to  the  relations  of  the  deceased  would  be  suf- 
ficient ;  but  on  the  committee  preparing  to  proceed 
to  Macao,  the  government  required  his  being  left 
behind.  Captain  Rolles  now  interfered,  and  de- 
clared that,  if  Sheen  was  not  permitted  to  be  taken 
by  the  committee  to  Macao,  he  should  take  him  on 
board  the  Lion,  and  the  point  was  at  length  con- 
ceded. The  local  government  being  puzzled  how 
to  proceed,  invented  a  tale,  in  which  it  was  stated 
that  Sheen,  while  opening  an  upper  window,  had 
dropped  by  misfortune  a  piece  of  wood,  which 
struck  the  Chinese  on  the  forehead,  and  caused  his 
death.  This  was  sent  up  to  Peking  as  an  official 
report,  and  an  imperial  reply  was  soon  obtained, 
sanctioning  the  liberation  of  Sheen,  on  his  paying 
a  fine  of  about  twelve  taels,  or  four  pounds  sterling, 
to  the  relations  of  the  deceased.  This  singular 
transaction  proves  at  once  how  easily  the  emperor 
may  be  deceived,  and  with  what  readiness  the  local 
government  can  get  out  of  a  difficulty.  The  firm 
and  successful  conduct  of  the  committee  and  of 
Captain  Rolles  was  much  approved,  and  to  the 
latter  jClOOO  was  voted  by  the  court  of  directors. 

Early  in  1808,  information  reached  India  of  the 
probability  of  ambitious  views  being  entertained  by 
France  towards  the  East,  and  of  the  danger  to  which 
Macao  might  be  exposed  by  the  vicinity  of  Manilla, 
if  the  French  should  make  that  Spanish  colony  their 
own.  In  consideration  of  treaties,  by  which  Eng- 
land was  pledged  to  protect  Portugal  and  its  settle- 
ments against  aggression,  as  well  as  of  the  inter- 
ests which  the  English  themselves  had  at  stake  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Canton,  Lord  Minto,  having 
garrisoned  the  colony  of  Goa,  by  a  convention  with 
the  governor  of  that  place,  deemed  it  fit  to  send  an 


EXPEDITION    OF   ADMIRAL    DRURY.  89 

expedition  for  the  protection  of  Macao,  which  he 
apprehended  might  be  threatened  by  an  enemy's 
fleet.  It  might  reasonably  be  questioned  how  far 
such  a  measure  was  well  advised,  after  the  experi- 
ence of  the  similar  expedition  just  six  years  before, 
when  it  plainly  appeared  that  the  Chinese  treated 
Macao  as  a  portion  of  their  empire,  and  the  Portu- 
guese as  mere  tenants  at  will :  the  result,  at  least, 
was  an  utter  failure. 

The  Portuguese  governor  of  Macao,  with  his  200 
or  300  starved  blacks,  could  of  course  pretend  to 
offer  no  opposition ;  he  in  fact  soon  received  an 
order  from  Goa  to  admit  the  troops  ;  but,  under  a 
thin  veil  of  compliance  and  affected  friendship,  it 
soon  appeared  that  the  Portuguese  were  doing 
every  thing  in  secret  to  misrepresent  the  designs 
of  the  English  to  their  Chinese  masters,  by  whom 
they  were  forbidden  to  admit  any  force  into  Macao, 
without  permission  previously  obtained.  It  being 
determined,  however,  by  the  president  of  the  com- 
mittee, and  by  Admiral  Drury,  who  commanded  the 
naval  force,  that  the  troops  should  land,  a  conven- 
tion was  signed  on  the  21st  of  September,  and  they 
were  disembarked  quietly  on  the  same  day.  An 
order  soon  came  from  the  viceroy  for  the  troops  to 
depart ;  and,  when  this  was  not  complied  with,  the 
trade  at  Canton  was  stopped,  and  provisions  denied 
both  to  the  Indiamen  and  to  the  squadron  of  his 
majesty's  ships.  An  edict  of  the  Chinese  observed, 
"  Knowing,  as  you  ought  to  know,  that  the  Portu- 
guese inhabit  a  territory  belonging  to  the  celestial 
empire,  how  could  you  suppose  that  the  French 
would  ever  venture  to  molest  them  1  if  they  dared, 
our  warlike  troops  should  attack,  defeat,  and  chase 
them  from  the  face  of  the  country." 

The  admiral  proposed  to  the  viceroy  by  letter, 

that  they  should  have  an  audience  at  Canton  to 

accommodate  matters,  but  no  answer  whatever  was 

returned.     All  British  subjects  were  aoon  after  or- 

H2 


90  THE    CHINESE. 

dered  to  join  their  respective  vessels,  and  his  ma- 
jesty's ships  were  moved  higher  up  the  river.  As  the 
viceroy  still  refused  an  audience  to  Admiral  Drury, 
and  declared  that  he  knew  no  English  authority  but 
the  company's  chief,  the  admiral  proceeded  to  Can- 
ton in  person,  and  insisted  on  an  interview,  saying, 
he  would  be  in  the  city  in  the  course  of  half  an 
hour.  The  viceroy  persisted  in  declining  the  visit, 
and  the  admiral,  instead  of  persevering  in  his  inten- 
tions, returned  to  his  ship. 

Some  time  after  this,  the  boats  of  all  the  men-of 
war  and  Indiamen  were  manned  and  armed  (ot 
the  purpose  of  proceeding  on  a  second  visit  to 
Canton,  and  forcing  a  way  through  the  line  of 
Chinese  vessels  which  were  moored  across  the 
river,  and  filled  with  soldiers,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  admiral's  approach.  On  reaching  the  line,  he 
pulled  up  in  his  own  boat  to  address  the  principal 
mandarin,  through  the  medium  of  a  Portuguese 
priest,  who  acted  as  interpreter;  no  parley,  how- 
ever, was  admitted,  and  after  being  fired  at  for  some 
time,  one  of  the  admiral's  men  was  wounded,  when 
he  ordered  the  signal  to  be  made  for  attack.  "  The 
signal  was  not  observed,  and  ordered  not  to  be  re- 
peated. The  admiral  then  declared  his  intention 
not  to  force  the  Chinese  line,  and  returned  with  the 
boats  to  the  fleet.  Though  a  man  of  undisputed 
courage  (as  observed  in  the  evidence  before  the 
Commons  in  1830),  Admiral  Drury  seems  not  to 
have  possessed  that  cool  and  deliberate  judgment 
which  was  essential  to  the  success  of  the  business 
he  had  been  engaged  in."*  The  attempt  to  proceed 
to  Canton  in  the  boats  ought  either  never  to  have 
been  made,  or  it  should  have  been  carried  through. 
A  pagoda  was  built  by  the  Chinese  near  the  spot, 
to  commemorate  their  victory  over  the  English. 

The  trade  still  continued  at  a  stand,  and  the  vice- 

♦  Parliamentary  Evidence,  1880, 


CHINESE  HOSTILITY  TO  MR.  ROBERTS.       91 

roy  issued  an  edict  to  repeat,  that,  while  a  single 
soldier  remained  at  Macao,  no  commerce  could  be 
allowed.  On  the  8th  of  December,  it  was  therefore 
determined  to  act  on  a  document  lately  received 
from  the  emperor,  which  afforded  a  fair  pretext  for 
relinquishing  the  point  in  debate.  A  convention 
was  concluded  in  a  few  days  after  at  Macao,  the 
troops  were  embarked,  and  Admiral  Drury  sailed 
away  in  the  Russell  for  Bengal,  on  the  •22d  Decem- 
ber. Thus,  after  a  fruitless  discussion  of  three 
months,  the  Chinese  ended  in  gaining  their  point 
"—the  withdrawal  of  the  troops  ;  and  their  success 
was  calculated  to  increase  the  arrogance  by  which 
they  had  always  been  sufficiently  distinguished. 
The  Viceroy  of  Canton,  however,  was  disgraced 
and  removed  by  the  emperor. 

The  line  of  measures  pursued  by  the  president  in 
China  in  concert  with  the  admiral,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  expedition,  being  disapproved  in  England,  he 
was  superseded  by  a  fresh  appointment  from  home. 
The  Chinese,  however,  did  not  forget  their  grudge 
against  Mr.  Roberts,  and  they  were  encouraged  by 
finding  that  he  had  been  censured  by  the  company ; 
while  the  Portuguese,  at  the  same  time,  with  their 
usual  serv'ility,  suggested  complaints  against  him. 
Soon  after  he  had  again  succeeded  to  a  seat  in  the 
committee,  and  returned  from  a  visit  to  England, 
the  hoppo  in  1813  issued  an  edict  against  that  gen- 
tleman, expressly  on  account  of  his  measures  five 
years  before,  and  it  was  declared  that  he  was  not 
permitted  to  proceed  to  Canton.  Indisposition,  it 
so  happened,  actually  detained  him  at  Macao  on  that 
occasion  ;  but  the  committee  were  determined  to 
deny  the  right  of  Chinese  interference  in  the  ap- 
pointments of  the  English  authorities;  and,  although 
the  Factory  reached  Canton  at  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber, they  would  not  permit  the  ships  to  unload 
until  the  interdict  against  Mr.  Roberts  should 
h«ve  bewi  withdrawn.     On  the  22d  November,  the 


92  THE    CHINESE* 

president  addressed  a  strong  remonstrance  to  the 
viceroy  on  the  subject ;  but,  before  an  answer  could 
be  returned,  the  gentleman  who  was  the  subject  of 
discussion  died  at  Macao  of  his  illness.  The  pres- 
ident then  declared  that  the  principle  on  which  the 
committee  acted  was  in  nowise  altered  by  that  cir- 
cumstance ;  and  as  the  hoppo  issued  a  paper  in 
which  the  local  government  disclaimed  the  right  of 
interfering  in  the  company's  appointments,  the 
trade  was  resumed. 

The  jealous  and  suspicious  character  of  the  Chi- 
nese government  was  eminently  displayed  in  the 
year  1813,  on  the  occasion  of  some  presents  from 
England  being  conveyed  to  a  minister  at  Peking. 
Soong-tajin,  a  mandarin  of  high  rank,  who  had  act- 
ed as  conductor  to  Lord  Macartney's  mission,  and 
whose  kind  and  conciliatory  conduct  to  the  English 
on  that  occasion,  as  well  as  when  he  afterward  fill- 
ed the  office  of  viceroy  at  Canton,  had  made  some 
of  them  his  warm  friends,  became  at  length  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  one  of  the  emperor's  council.  It  was 
therefore  resolved  in  England  that,  both  as  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  past  good  offices,  and  an  earnest 
of  future  ones,  a  letter  and  presents  should  be  con- 
veyed to  the  minister ;  the  person  selected  for  the 
performance  of  this  service  was  a  Chinese  named 
AyeM',  for  some  time  linguist  at  Canton,  and  by  him 
the  gold  box  and  letter  were  safely  conveyed  to 
their  destination.  He  returned  on  the  25th  August, 
with  a  card  of  acknowledgment  from  Soong-tajin ; 
but  not  long  after  his  arrival  the  linguist  was  seiz- 
ed by  order  of  the  government,  and  after  a  summa- 
ry trial  banished  to  Tartary,  for  the  crime  of  illicit 
dealings  with  foreign  barbarians  !  It  was  soon  af- 
ter learned  that  the  unfortunate  minister  had  been 
disgraced,  and  the  present  sent  back  ;  and  it  has 
been  since  remarked  that  the  unguarded  mandarin, 
whose  amiable  character  distinguished  him  above 
the  generality  of  his  countrymen,  never  afterward 


DISCUSSIONS   OF    1814.  93 

regained  his  former  power  or  favour  with  the  em- 
peror. 

The  foregoing  circumstances  came  subsequently, 
m  the  year  1814,  to  be  mixed  up  with  discussions 
in  which  the  select  committee  were  involved  with 
the  local  government,  partly  in  consequence  of  the 
proceedings  of  his  majesty's  ship  Doris^  which  was 
then  exercising  a  very  active  blockade  against  the 
American  merchantmen  in  the  Canton  river.  In 
the  month  of  April,  the  Doris,  being  on  a  cruise  near 
Macao,  captured  the  American  ship  Hunter  off  the 
Ladrone  islands,  and  brought  her  in.  The  Chinese 
government  immediately  issued  an  edict,  desiring 
the  committee  to  send  the  Doris  away,  which  they 
of  course  answered,  by  stating  their  inability  to  per- 
form what  was  demanded.  In  May  following,  the 
Dorises  boats  chased  an  American  schooner  from 
the  neighbourhood  of  Macao  up  to  Whampoa,  with- 
in ten  miles  of  Canton,  where  they  took  her ;  but," 
before  she  could  be  carried  out  of  the  river,  the 
Americans  at  Whampoa  armed  their  boats  and  re- 
took their  schooner.  This  event,  with  the  capture 
of  the  Hunter  previously,  commenced  the  troubles 
of  1814.  The  Chinese  hereupon  entered  upon  a 
course  of  aggressive  measures,  not  against  the  frig- 
ate, but  against  the  factory,  which  soon  became  in- 
tolerable. The  local  government  first  prohibited 
the  employment  of  native  servants  :  they  then  sent 
persons  to  enter  the  factory,  and  seize  upon  such 
Chinese  as  they  found  there.  The  boats  of  the  In- 
diamen  were  molested  while  peaceably  proceeding 
on  their  business  on  the  river  ;  and  every  attempt 
was  made  to  prevent  communication  with  our  men- 
of-war. 

The  committee,  seeing  the  hostile  disposition  of 
the  government,  determined  on  the  bold  measure  of 
stopping  the  trade,  as  the  only  means  of  arriving  at 
a  remedy.  The  Chinese,  somewhat  startled  at  their 
old  weapon  being  turned  against  themselves,  began 


94  THE    CHINESE. 

to  display  a  more  conciliatory  temper,  and,  after 
some  debate,  a  mandarin  was  appointed  to  meet  Sir 
George  Stamiton,  who  was  deputed  to  conduct  the 
negotiation  on  the  part  of  the  committee.  .  Accord- 
ingly, on  the  20th  of  October,  Sir  George  proceeded 
to  Canton,  accompanied  by  Sir  Theophilus  Metcalf 
and  Mr.  Davis.  The  first  subject  of  complaint  was 
the  arrest  of  the  linguist  Ayew,  for  performing  a 
service  which  was  merely  complimentary  on  the 
part  of  the  English,  and  expressive  of  their  respect 
for  a  dignified  officer  of  government,  who  had  con- 
ducted the  first  embassy  through  China,  and  been  on 
friendly  terms  with  its  members.  It  was  immedi- 
ately replied,  that  his  seizure  was  on  account  of  a 
totally  different  affair,  and  that  there  was  no  inten- 
tion of  condemning  the  proceeding.  Several  meet- 
ings took  place  with  the  principal  mandarins  and 
one  or  two  assessors,  but  little  progress  was  made 
towards  an  adjustment ;  when  the  viceroy  suddenly 
determined  on  breaking  off  the  negotiation.  The 
committee,  upon  this,  resolved  on  issuing  a  notice 
to  all  British  subjects  to  quit  Canton  :  Sir  George 
Staunton  and  the  gentleman  with  him  embarked  in 
the  Wexford^  and  the  whole  fleet  proceeded  down 
the  river. 

This  step  had  the  effect  of  completely  curing  the 
obstinacy  of  the  viceroy.  A  deputation  of  Hong 
merchants  was  sent  down  to  the  ships,  with  author- 
ity to  state  that  mandarins  would  be  sent  to  discuss 
the  remaining  points  in  dispute  if  Sir  George  would 
return.  On  his  reaching  Canton,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  retract  the  pledge,  but  this  could  not  be 
persisted  in  ;  and,  after  several  long  and  tedious  au- 
diences with  the  mandarins,  the  principal  points  in 
dispute  were  gained,  and  incorporated  in  an  official 
paper  froni  the  viceroy,  as  the  only  security  against 
a  breach  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  Chinese.  The 
privilege  of  corresponding  with  the  government 
under  seal,  and  in  the  native  character,  was  now 


EMBASSY    OF    LORD    AMHERST.  95 

for  the  first  time  established ;  an  assurance  was 
given  that  no  Chinese  officer  should  ever  enter  the 
British  factory  without  leave  previously  obtained  ; 
and  license  was  given  to  native  servants  to  enter 
into  the  service  of  the  English  without  molestation 
from  the  petty  mandarins ;  together  with  some  oth- 
er points. 

The  measures  above  detailed  were  highly  ap- 
proved in  England ;  but  the  conduct  and  disposition 
of  the  Chinese  government  for  some  time  past  had 
been  such  as  to  prove  that  the  commercial  interests 
of  the  nation  in  China  were  exposed  to  the  utmost 
hazard  from  the  chance  of  perpetual  interruption  at 
the  will  of  a  capricious  and  despotic  set  of  dele- 
gates, who  kept  the  court  of  Peking  in  profound 
ignorance  of  their  own  oppressive  and  arbitrary 
conduct  towards  the  company's  trade.  To  these 
circumstances  is  to  be  attributed  the  embassy  of 
Lord  Amherst  in  1816,  of  which  the  object  was  to 
secure,  if  possible,  the  commerce  of  Great  Britain 
upon  a  solid  and  equitable  footing,  under  the  cogni- 
zance of  the  emperor,  and  with  the  advantage  of  a 
ready  appeal  to  him  in  ease  of  need.  The  design 
of  a  mission  to  Peking  had  been  for  some  time  en- 
tertained by  his  majesty's  ministers  and  the  court 
of  directors,  when  the  arrival  from  China  of  the 
despatches  of  1815  confirmed  them  in  the  resolu- 
tion. It  was  hoped,  as  a  collateral  object,  and  one 
within  the  range  of  possibility,  that  an  English  res- 
ident might  be  admitted  at  the  capital,  or  permis- 
sion be  obtained  for  trading  to  some  of  the  ports  on 
the  northeast  coast. 

The  embassy  left  England  in  the  Alceste  frigate 
on  the  10th  of  February,  attended  by  the  Lyra  brig, 
and  the  General  Hewett^  a  company's  ship,  and  ar- 
rived off  Macao  on  the  12th  of  July,  when  it  was 
joined  by  Sir  George  Staunton,  the  first  commis- 
sioner, as  well  as  by  the  Chinese  secretaries,  and 
the  other  gentlemen  who  were  appointed  from  Eng- 


96  THE  CHINESE. 

land  to  accompany  it  to  Peking.  The  ships  reached 
the  Gulf  of  Pechelee  on  the  28th  of  July,  but  the 
ambassador  did  not  land  until  the  9th  of  August. 
On  the  12th  the  mission  reached  Tien-tsin,  where  a 
feast  was  conferred  on  the  part  of  the  emperor, 
and  an  attempt  made  to  bring  about  the  practice  of 
the  ko-toiv,  or  prostration,  before  a  yellow  screen, 
preparatory  to  the  grand  performance  of  it  before 
the  emperor  himself.  This,  however,  was  success- 
fully avoided,  on  the  plea  that  Earl  Macartney  had 
not  been  required  to  execute  that  act  of  fealty  and 
vassalage. 

As  some  uninformed  persons  have,  without  suffi- 
cient consideration  or  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
ventured  to  argue  that  the  non-performance  of  the 
ko-tow  was  too  strict  an  adherence  to  punctilio  on 
the  part  of  both  our  ambassadors,  it  may  be  as  well 
to  show,  that,  putting  (with  them)  all  considerations 
of  national  honour  and  dignity  entirely  out  of  the 
question  as  mere  vanities,  and  viewing  the  matter 
simply  as  one  of  commercial  profit  or  loss,  there  is 
nothing  to  be  gained  by  it,  but  the  reverse.  It  was 
observed  in  the  narrative  of  Lord  Macartney's  mis- 
sion, "  The  Dutch,  who  in  the  last  century  submit- 
ted at  once  to  every  ceremony  prescribed  to  them, 
in  the  hope  of  obtaining  in  return  some  lucrative 
advantages,  complained  of  being  treated  with  neg- 
lect, and  of  being  dismissed  without  the  smallest 
promise  of  any  favour."*  The  fate  of  a  later  Dutch 
embassy  was  still  worse  ;  but  it  is  fair  to  state  their 
gains  against  their  losses  on  the  occasion.  In  return 
for  beating  their  heads  nine  times  against  the  ground 
before  the  throne,  they  certainly  had  some  broken 
victuals  sent  them,  as  from  the  emperor.  Of  these, 
however,  Van  Braam  observes,  that  they  were  prin- 
cipally sheep's  trotters,  "which  appeared  to  have 
been  already  gnawed  clean.    This  disgusting  mess," 

•  Vol.  u.,  p.  13^. 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DUTCH  EMBASSY.        97 

he  adds,  "  was  upon  a  dirty  plate,  and  appeared 
rather  destined  to  feed  a  dog  than  to  form  the  re- 
past of  a  human  creature."  As  this  was  the  only- 
advantage  they  gained  by  their  painful  corporeal 
exertions  upon  the  ground,  it  may  next  be  observed 
that  the  whole  course  of  their  treatment  on  the 
journey  back  was  of  the  most  mortifying  and  de- 
grading character.  This  embassy  occurred  in  1795, 
during  the  era  of  small-clothes,  and  before  liberal 
principles  had  been  generally  established  in  dress 
as  in  other  matters ;  and  these  hapless  Dutchmen 
were  made,  on  the  most  trivial  occasions  of  cere- 
mony^ to  perform  their  evolutions,  while  the  wicked 
mandarins  stood  by  and  laughed — and  who  would 
noti — at  what  has  been  diplomatically  styled  "the 
embarrassment  of  a  Dutch-built  stern  in  tight  inex- 
pressibles." 

Sir  John  Malcolm,  who  understood,  if  any  man 
ever  did,  the  Asiatic  character,  has  observed  in  one 
of  his  works : — "  From  the  hour  the  first  mission 
reached  Persia,  servants,  merchants,  governors  of 
towns,  chiefs,  and  high  public  officers,  presuming 
upon  our  ignorance,  made  constant  attempts  to  tres- 
pass upon  our  dignity;  and,  though  repelled  at  all 
points,  they  continued  their  efforts,  till  a  battle 
royal  at  Shiraz  put  the  question  to  rest,  by  estab- 
lishing our  reputation,  as  to  a  just  sense  of  our  own 
pretensions,  upon  a  basis  which  was  never  after- 
ward shaken."  Russia,  whose  ambassadors,  like 
our  own,  have  refused  to  perform  the  Chinese  act 
of  vassalage,  has  a  residency  at  Peking,  which  may 
at  least  (as  an  advantage)  be  set  against  "  les  pattes 
d'un  mouton,"  and  "les  ossemens  ronges,"  which 
the  Dutchmen  gained  by  'performing  it.  Admitting, 
however,  that  the  balance  was  in  favour  of  the  lat- 
ter, it  may  reasonably  be  questioned'  whether  it  is 
wise,  on  such  occasions,  to  sink  all  considerations 
of  national  respectabihty.  The  Athenians  were  a 
politic  as  well  as  brave  people ;  and  when  Timago* 

Vol.  L— I 


98  THE    CHINESE. 

fas,  who  was  sent  by  them  as  ambassador  to  the 
King  of  Persia,  had  the  imprudence  to  degrade  his 
country  by  the  act  of  prostration,  he  was  condemned 
to  die  on  his  return. 

But  let  us  only  do  as  the  Chinese  themselves  have 
always  done.  Gerbillon  tells  us,  that  when  an  offi- 
cer of  the  Emperor  Kang-hy  was  taken  by  the  King 
of  the  Eluths,  the  latter  insisted  on  his  speaking  on 
his  knees ;  but  the  Chinese  refused,  saying  he  was 
not  his  vassal^  but  his  own  emperor's.  A  Chinese 
account  of  Japan  expressly  states,  that  an  ambas- 
sador from  Peking  to  that  country  refused  the  pros- 
tration, and,  rather  than  compromise  the  honour  of 
his  nation,  returned  without  communicating  the  or- 
ders of  his  court.  But  it  has  been  mere  ignorance 
to  consider  the  ko-tow  as  nothing  but  a  ceremony. 
The  unthinking  majority  is  led  by  names,  and  it  is 
important  to  know  that  the  prostration  is  the  solemn 
rite  by  which  the  King  of  Cochin-china,  and  the 
rulers  of  the  petty  kingdoms  of  Corea  and  Loo- 
choo,  do  homage  by  their  emissaries  upon  being 
confirmed  by  the  Chinese  emperor  in  the  succes- 
sion. The  spirit  and  import  of  the  ko-toxo  are  those 
of  the  form  by  which  the  feudal  tenant  in  capite  did 
homage  to  his  liege  lord ;  and  every  country  that, 
like  Japan,  has  professed  to  be  independent,  has 
declined  performing  it. 

However  oddly  it  may  sound  to  us,  at  the  distance 
of  more  than  12,000  miles,  the  aspirations  with 
which  the  court  of  Peking  aims  at  universal  su- 
premacy are  best  expressed  in  the  words  of  the  old 
secular  hymn  : — 

"  Alme  sol,  possis  nihil  urbe  Roma 
Visere  majus!" 

All  countries  that  send  tribute,  while  their  ambas- 
sadors go  through  the  forms  of  allegiance,  consti- 
tute a  part  of  the  empire,  and  their  respective  kings 
reign  under  the  sanction  of  the  "  Son  of  heaven." 


THE    KO-TOW,    OR    PROSTRATION.  99 

This  of  course  signifies  little  enough  at  a  distance, 
but  the  effect  is  felt  in  China ;  for  any  remonstrance 
against  oppression,  on  the  part  of  a  subject  of  one 
of  these  states,  must  be  stopped  by  such  an  unan- 
swerable argument,  which  proves  at  once  his  rela- 
tive inferiority  and  worthlessness ;  and  what  had 
been  merely  the  rights  of  independence  in  another, 
become,  in  his  case,  rebellion.  Mr.  Barrow,  who 
has  really  studied  China,  and  understands  it  well, 
observes,  that  "  a  tame  and  passive  obedience  to 
the  degrading  demands  of  this  haughty  court  serves 
only  to  feed  its  pride,  and  add  to  the  absurd  notions 
of  its  own  vast  importance."  A  Jesuit  at  Peking, 
quoted  by  Du  Halde,  observed,  as  long  ago  as  1687, 
that  the  princes  of  Europe  should  be  cautious  how 
they  send  letters  and  presents  to  China,  lest  "  their 
kingdoms  be  registered  among  the  tributaries." 

As  this  is  rather  an  important  subject,  and  may 
become  a  question  of  expediency  at  some  future 
time,  it  is  as  well  to  add  Dr.  Morrison's  observa- 
tions : — "  There  is  a  difference  of  submission  and 
devotedness  expressed  by  different  postures  of  the 
body,  and  some  nations  feel  an  almost  instinctive 
reluctance  to  the  stronger  expression  of  submission. 
As,  for  instance,  standing  and  bending  the  head  is 
less  than  kneeling  on  one  knee  ;  as  that  is  less  than 
kneeling  on  two  knees  ;  and  that  less,  again,  than 
kneeling  on  two  knees,  and  putting  the  hands  and 
forehead  to  the  ground ;  and  doing  this  once  is,  in 
the  apprehension  of  the  Chinese,  less  than  doing  it 
three  limes,  or  six  times,  or  nine  times.  Waiving 
the  question  whether  it  be  proper  for  one  human 
being  to  use  such  strong  expressions  of  submission 
to  another  or  not,  when  any  (even  the  strongest) 
of  these  forms  are  reciprocal,  they  do  not  interfere 
v^rith  the  idea  of  equality  or  of  mutual  independ- 
ence. If  they  are  not  reciprocally  performed,  the 
last  of  the  forms  expresses  in  the  strongest  manner 
the  submission  and  homage  of  one  person  or  state 


100  THE  CHINESE. 

to  another :  and  in  this  Hght  the  Tartar  family  now: 
on  the  throne  of  China  consider  the  san-kivei  kew- 
kow,  thrice  kneehng  and  nine  times  beating  the  head 
against  the  ground.  Those  nations  of  Europe  who 
consider  themselves  tributary  and  yielding  homage 
to  China,  should  perform  the  Tartar  ceremony; 
those  who  do  not  consider  themselves  so  should 
not  perform  the  ceremony. 

"  The  English  ambassador,  Lord  Macartney,  ap- 
pears to  have  understood  correctly  the  meaning  of 
the  ceremony,  and  proposed  the  only  condition 
which  could  enable  him  to  perform  it,  viz.,  a  Chi- 
nese of  equal  rank  performing  it  to  the  King  of 
England's  picture ;  or  perhaps  a  promise  from  the 
Chinese  court  that,  should  an  ambassador  ever  go 
from  thence  to  England,  he  would  perform  it  in  the 
king's  presence,  might  have  enabled  him  to  do  it. 
These  remarks  will  probably  convince  the  reader 
that  the  English  government  acts  as  every  civilized 
government  ought  to  do,  when  she  endeavours  to 
cultivate  a  good  understanding  and  liberal  inter- 
course with  China.  But  since,  while  using  these 
endeavours,  she  never  contemplates  yielding  hom- 
age to  China,  she  still  wisely  refuses  to  perform  by 
her  ambassador  that  ceremony  which  is  the  expres- 
sion of  homage."  This  argument  takes  the  ques- 
tion up  on  a  higher  ground  than  that  sordid  one  of 
a  mere  commercial  profit  or  loss  ;  but,  even  ac- 
cording to  that,  we  think  it  has  been  shown  to  be  a 
losing  speculation  to  kiss  the  dust  before  the  Chi-~ 
nese  emperor.  The  performance  of  the  prostra- 
tion by  its  ambassador  places  a  country  on  a  level 
with  Loo-choo,  and  those  tributary  states  whose 
kings  reign  by  the  sanction  of  the  court  of  Peking. 
The  non-performance  of  it  (which  has  been  the 
uniform  course  pursued  by  every  Chinese  ambassa- 
dor sent  to  a  foreign  country)  proves  the  inde- 
pendent sovereignty  of  a  state,  and  gains  for  its 
ambassador  a  far  more  respectful  treatment  than 


CAUSE    OF    EiMBASSy's    FAILURE.  101 

the  contrary  procedure,  as  experience  has  suffi- 
ciently proved. 

In  fact,  the  whole  conduct  of  the  persons  deputed 
from  Peking  to  negotiate  the  point  of  the  ceremo- 
nial, joined  to  the  information  subsequently  obtain- 
ed, proved  that  the  rejection  of  Lord  Amherst's 
mission  was  not  entirely  on  account  of  the  ko-taw; 
and  that,  even  had  the  embassy  been  received  in 
the  hurried  and  undignified  manner  which  was  very 
properly  resisted,  it  would  have  been  sent  away 
again  within  a  few  days,  contrary  to  the  regulation 
by  which  forty  days  are  assigned  as  the  limit  of 
stay.  The  provincial  government  of  Canton  well 
knew  that  a  principal  object  of  the  embassy  was  to 
complain  of  the  treatment  which  our  commerce 
had  there  experienced,  and  its  whole  influence  had 
in  every  way  been  exerted  to  frustrate  the  success 
of  the  mission.  Lord  Macartney,  who  declined 
submitting  to  the  prostration,  was  more  honourably 
received  than  almost  any  ambassador  that  ever 
entered  China ;  and  it  was  remarked  that,  if  there 
was  any  difference  in  the  treatment  of  Lord  Am- 
herst's embassy  before  and  after  its  return  towards 
Canton,  it  was  in  favour  of  the  latter.  But  it  was 
afterward  clearly  demonstrated  that  the  emissaries 
of  the  provincial  government  had  been  busily  at 
work :  and  even  during  the  progress  of  the  negoti- 
ations  a  rumour  was  heard  that  "  one  of  the  com- 
missioners had  purchased  his  situation,  to  which  he 
had  no  proper  title ;  that  he  had  amassed  an  im- 
mense fortune  by  trade,"  &c.,  and  other  matters  of 
the  same  kind,  which,  in  conjunction  with  the  treat- 
ment of  the  embassy,  clearly  proved  the  agency  of 
the  Canton  viceroy  and  his  colleagues. 

Meanwhile,  these  same  local  authorities  lost  no 
opportunity  of  displaying  their  ill-will  towards  the 
Alceste,  the  Lyra,  and  the  Hewett  Indiaman,  which 
had  proceeded  to  Canton,  and  reached  that  place 
some  time  before  the  arrival  of  the  embassy  through 
12 


102  THE  CHINESE. 

the  interior  of  China.  The  hoppo  denied  a  cargo 
to  the  Hewett,  on  the  plea  of  her  being  a  "  tribute- 
ship,"  looking,  no  doubt,  for  a  handsome  bribe  from 
the  Hong  merchants  for  permission  to  load  her. 
Leave  was  at  the  same  time  refused  to  the  Alceste 
and  Lyra  to  anchor  at  Whampoa,  by  which  it  was 
intended  to  degrade  the  British  ambassador  below 
the  tribute-bearer  from  Siam,  whose  junk  has  free 
leave  to  enter  the  river!  The  Alceste^  however, 
proceeded  very  leisurely  on  her  way ;  and  Captain 
Maxwell,  on  being  fired  at  by  the  junks  and  the 
fort  at  the  river's  mouth,  silenced  the  junks  with  a 
single  shot ;  while  one  broadside  sufficed  to  send 
the  garrison  of  the  fort  scampering  up  the  side  of 
the  hill,  down  which  that  defence  is  somewhat  pre- 
posterously built.  The  effect  of  this  decisive  con- 
duct was  evinced  in  the  short  space  of  one  day,  by 
the  arrival  of  all  sorts  of  provisions  to  the  Alcesle 
at  Whampoa,  by  a  free  consent  to  load  the  Heicett, 
and  by  a  pubhcation  of  a  statement  that  the  firing 
at  the  entrance  of  the  river  was  an  affair  of  saluting. 
Those  who  composed  the  embassy  were  gratified 
to  find,  on  their  arrival  at  Canton  on  the  1st  of  Jan- 
uary, that  Captain  Maxwell  had  not  been  deterred 
by  any  unnecessary  apprehensions  for  their  safety 
from  duly  maintaining  the  dignity  of  the  British  flag. 
The  viceroy,  it  appeared,  had  a  letter  from  the  em- 
peror for  the  prince  regent,  which  he  was  bound 
to  deliver  in  person  to  Lord  Amherst.  It  was  re- 
solved by  his  excellency  not  to  consent  to  any 
meeting  with  that  functionary,  unless  the  first  place 
was  yielded  to  himself  and  the  commissioners,  as 
Chinese  of  the  rank  of  the  viceroy  were  too  much 
accustomed  to  arrogate  to  themselves  the  prece- 
dence on  such  occasions,  even  with  their  guests ; 
and  it  was  important  at  Canton,  the  seat  of  our 
connexions  with  the  country,  to  take  this  public  op- 
portunity of  maintaining  his  own  rights.  Accord- 
ingly, a  yellow   tent   was  erected,  in  which  the 


EXPENSIVE  MISSIONS.  103 

viceroy,  reverently  lifting  above  his  head  with  both 
hands  the  emperor's  despatch,  which  was  enclo- 
sed in  a  roll  of  yellow  silk,  delivered  it  with  much 
solemnity  into  the  ambassador's  hands.  The  whole 
party  then  repaired  to  an  adjoining  tent,  where  his 
excellency,  with  Sir  George  Staunton  (who  had  now 
resumed  his  former  station  at  Canton)  and  the  other 
commissioner,  took  their  seats  to  the  left;  and  the 
viceroy,  his  lieutenant,  and  the  hoppo,  on  the  other 
side.  It  was  this  same  officer,  by  name  Tseang 
Tajin,  who  had  inflicted  so  many  vexations  on  the 
English  at  Canton  since  1814,  of  whom  it  was  one 
of  the  principal  objects  of  the  mission  to  complain, 
and  whose  intrigues  at  court  may  be  considered  as 
a  chief  cause  of  its  rejection.  His  looks  on  this  oc- 
casion betrayed  his  unfriendly  feelings ;  but  an  at- 
tempt which  he  made  to  say  something  uncivil  met 
with  such  a  reception  as  made  him  shrink  within 
himself,  and  he  was  glad  to  hide  his  embarrassment 
in  a  hurried  take-leave,  which  closed  the  business 
of  the  embassy  in  China.  Mr.  Barrow  calculates* 
that  Lord  Macartney's  mission  cost  the  Chinese 
government  a  sum  equal  to  JC  170,000  sterling.  Lord 
Amherst's  must  have  cost  nearly  the  same  during 
the  five  months  it  was  on  their  hands  ;  and  it  is 
hardly  surprising  if  they  are  not  anxious  for  many 
such  expensive  visits. 

It  has  often  been  a  subject  of  just  remark,  that 
this  unsuccessful  mission  was  followed  by  a  longer 
interval  of  tranquillity,  and  of  freedom  from  Chinese 
annoyance,  than  had  ever  been  experienced  before. 
From  the  year  1816  to  1829,  not  a  single  stoppage 
of  the  British  trade  took  place,  except  in  the  affair 
of  the  Topaze  frigate  in  1822  ;  and  there  the  Can- 
ton government  was  glad  to  make  the  first  advances 
to  a  resumption  of  the  suspended  intercourse,  as  we 
shall  see.     In  1820  an  accidental  occurrence  took 

*  Travels  in  China,  p.  605. 


104  THE   CHINESE. 

place,  which  gave  rise  to  transactions  of  a  very  re- 
markable nature,  proving  in  the  strongest  manner 
the  anxiety  of  the  government  to  avoid  a  discussion 
with  the  Enghsh.  Some  boats  from  one  of  the 
company's  ships  were  watering  in  the  river,  when 
they  were  barbarously  attacked  by  a  party  of  Chi- 
nese with  stones.  The  officer  in  charge  of  the 
boats  fired  over  the  heads  of  the  assailants  to  make 
them  desist,  but  the  shot  unfortunately  took  effect 
among  some  boys  on  a  high  bank  opposite,  and 
killed  one  of  them.  The  Chinese,  as  usual,  de- 
manded that  somebody  should  be  given  up ;  but  the 
committee  insisted  on  the  urgent  emergency  which 
led  to  the  discharge  of  the  gun,  as  well  as  on  the 
accidental  nature  of  the  case. 

In  the  meanwhile,  the  butcher  on  board  one  of 
the  ships  committed  suicide ;  and  the  Chinese,  on 
hearing  this,  immediately  took  it  up,  thinking  proper 
to  assume  that  he  must  be  the  individual  who  had 
shot  the  boy!  The  utmost  eagerness  and  haste 
were  shown  b}^  them  in  appointing  an  inquest  of 
mandarins,  who  proceeded  to  examine  the  body  ; 
and,  as  it  was  decided  by  them  at  once  that  the  de- 
ceased butcher  must  be  the  homicide,  the  trade  pro- 
ceeded as  usual.  It  must  be  observed,  that  the 
committee  only  granted  permission  for  the  ship  to  be 
boarded  by  the  mandarins  when  they  demanded  it, 
and  the  whole  proceeding  showed  the  extreme  anx- 
iety of  the  local  authorities  to  accommodate  the 
affair,  as  soon  as  they  despaired  of  getting  posses- 
sion of  some  victim  to  be  strangled  without  a  trial. 
But  they  carried  the  matter  still  further.  A  person 
of  some  rank,  scandalized  at  this  disgraceful  pro- 
ceeding on  the  part  of  the  government,  did  his  best 
to  induce  the  father  of  the  deceased  boy  to  declare 
that  he  was  not  satisfied  of  the  butcher  being  the 
slayer  of  his  son.  The  mandarins  immediately 
took  all  the  parties  into  custody,  and  punished  th«* 


CASE  OF  AN  ITALIAN  SAILOR.      105 

instigator  of  the  complaint,  as  one  who  conspired 
to  promote  litigation  and  trouble. 

Two  cases  of  homicide  now  remain  to  be  briefly 
related,  which  occurred  within  a  short  period  of 
each  other,  and  which  exhibit,  in  every  point  of  view, 
a  very  remarkable  contrast.  The  one  which  in- 
volved the  Americans,  proves  the  unhappy  conse- 
quences of  disunion  among  a  number  of  private 
traders,  each  of  them  influenced  by  his  individual 
interests  and  feelings ;  the  other,  which  implicated 
the  English,  mu.st  ever  remain  an  example  of  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  m  China  from  a  well-organ- 
ized and  steady  union  and  perseverance  against  the 
barbarous  conduct  of  the  Chinese.  On  the  23d  Sep- 
tember, 1821,  an  Italian  sailor,  by  name  Francis  Ter- 
ranova,  on  board  the  American  ship  Emily ^  was  the 
unfortunate  cause  of  the  death  of  a  Chinese  woman, 
whom  he  observed  in  a  boat  alongside  selhng  spir- 
its to  the  crew.  He  threw  down  a  small  earthen  jar, 
which  struck  the  woman  on  the  forehead,  and  she 
immediately  fell  overboard  and  sunk,  either  in  con- 
sequence of  being  stunned,  or  because  the  wooden 
pin,  to  which  her  oar  was  fastened,  broke  on  her  pul- 
ling away  from  the  ship.  The  American  trade  was 
stopped  until  the  man  should  be  delivered  up.  They 
consented  to  his  being  tried  by  the  mandarins  on 
board  the  ship,  and  after  this  mockery  of  justice,  in 
which  not  a  single  witness  was  examined  for  the 
prisoner,  and  the  offer  of  Dr.  Morrison  to  interpret 
was  refused  by  the  Chinese,  the  poor  man  was  de- 
clared guilty,  and  put  in  irons  by  the  Americans,  at 
the  desire  of  his  judges.  In  a  week  after,  complaints 
and  discussions  arose  among  those  whose  trading 
transactions  were  suff"ering  from  the  delay,  and, 
when  it  was  required  that  the  Italian  should  be  de- 
livered up  for  a  second  trial  at  Canton,  the  Hong 
merchants  were  told  that  they  might  take  him.  In 
the  words  of  Dr.  Morrison,  he  was  "  abandoned  by 
those  who  should  have  protected  him."    All  Euro- 


106  THE    CHINESE. 

peans,  as  well  as  Americans,  were  excluded  from 
his  mock  trial,  and  by  daybreak  next  morning  he 
was  hurried  to  the  place  of  execution,  in  opposition 
to  all  the  delays  and  forms  of  Chinese  law,  and  cru- 
elly strangled.  The  Peking  government  was  at  the 
same  time  informed  that  he  had  been  tried  in  open 
co^rt,  and  that  the  American  consul  had  witnessed 
his  execution ! 

The  success  of  the  Chinese  on  this  occasion  was 
likely  to  inspirit  them  on  the  next,  which  happened 
shortly  afterward,  in  the  case  of  the  English  frigate 
Topaze,  As  that  ship  lay  at  anchor  near  the  Island 
of  Lintin,  on  the  15th  December,  1821,  an  unarmed 
party  of  her  men,  who  were  watering  on  shore,  sud- 
denly found  themselves  set  upon  in  a  barbarous 
manner  by  the  natives,  armed  with  spears  and  long 
bamboos.  The  lieutenant  in  command  on  board 
the  Topaze,  seeing  the  desperate  situation  of  his 
men  from  the  deck,  hurried  a  party  of  marines  on 
shore,  who  by  their  fire  covered  the  retreat  of  his 
sailors,  at  the  same  time  that  some  guns  were  dis- 
charged on  the  neighbouring  village  to  keep  it  in 
check.  Fourteen  seamen  were  carried  on  board 
wounded,  some  of  them  severely ;  while  it  proved 
afterward  that  two  Chinese  were  killed  and  four 
wounded.  Captain  Richardson,  on  the  19th,  wrote 
to  the  viceroy,  complaining  of  the  assault,  and  lay- 
ing the  blame  of  the  transaction  on  the  Chinese ; 
but  that  officer  would  not  communicate  with  him. 
Elated,  no  doubt,  by  his  late  success  in  the  Ameri- 
can case,  he  threatened  to  make  the  select  commit-i 
tee  responsible,  and  to  stop  the  company's  trade 
until  two  Englishmen  were  delivered  up. 

The  committee,  finding  their  remonstrances  una* 
vailing,  perceived  there  was  no  better  way  of  meet- 
ing the  obstinacy  of  the  Chinese  than  to  embark  in 
their  ships,  and  quit  the  river  until  the  affair  should 
be  settled.  Accordingly,  on  the  11th  January,  the 
^ag  at  Canton  was  hauled  down,  and  the  whole  fleet 


H.    M.    SHIP    TOPAZE.  107 

])roceeded  to  the  second  bar  anchorage  :  this  imme" 
diately  produced  an  alteration  in  the  viceroy's  tone. 
On  the  13th  he  issued  a  paper,  declaring  that,  as 
the  committee  had  taken  such  a  step  as  to  remove 
from  Canton,  he  v/as  convinced  that  they  could  not 
control  Captain  Richardson.  They  were  therefore 
invited  back,  but  at  the  same  time  informed  that, 
unless  the  men  were  delivered  up,  the  trade  should 
be  stopped :  the  committee,  of  course,  declined  to 
return  on  such  conditions.  In  the  meanwhile,  as 
the  frigate  had  removed  to  Macao,  the  Chinese 
hoped  for  an  opportunity  of  saying  that  she  had 
absconded ;  but  her  speedy  return  rendered  this  im- 
possible. The  discussions  went  on  without  any 
result  (the  country  ships  carrying  on  their  business 
as  usual)  until  the  25th  January,  when  the  Hong 
merchants  brought  down  a  paper  from  the  viceroy, 
rejecting  Captain  Richardson's  proposal  to  refer  the 
matter  to  England,  and  reiterating  the  demand  for 
the  dehvery  of  the  men.  The  committee  immediate- 
ly ordered  the  fleet  to  get  under  weigh,  and  move  be- 
low the  river  to  Chuenpee.  The  Chinese  pjfots  had 
been  forbidden  to  assist  them,  but  they  mov^ed  down 
with  perfect  ease  and  safety,  having  their  guns 
double-shotted,  in  case  the  Chinese  forts  ventured 
to  fire. 

Though  it  had  been  before  declared  that  no  far- 
ther intercourse  could  be  maintained  after  the  ships 
quitted  the  river,  the  merchants  hurried  down  on 
the  29th  to  propose  that  the  committee  should  ad- 
dress the  viceroy,  stating  it  to  be  Captain  Richard- 
son's declaration  that  two  men  had  disappeared 
from  the  frigate;  by  which  the  local  government 
would  be  enabled  to  show  that  these  two  men  must 
be  the  homicides.  On  this  ingenious  proposal  being 
indignantly  rejected,  it  was  next  hinted  that  the  frig- 
ate should  go  away,  if  only  for  a  few  days,  to  enable 
the  viceroy  to  report  that 'she  had  absconded.  The 
Committee  reiterated  their  inability  to  return  to 


108  THE    CHINESE. 

Canton,  unless  they  were  totally  separated  and  ab- 
solved from  the  proceedings  of  his  majesty's  ships. 
Captain  Richardson  being  present,  took  occasion  to 
state  formally  that  the  time  of  his  departure  was 
approaching,  in  order  to  prevent  their  misrepresent- 
ing his  motives  hereafter. 

On  the  1st  February  a  letter  was  received  from 
the  merchants,  stating  that  an  officer  of  govern- 
ment would  be  sent  to  Lintin  to  investigate  the  bu- 
siness ;  and  on  the  4th  a  mandarin  proceeded,  by 
leave  of  Captain  Richardson,  to  a  conference  on 
board  the  Topaze^  where  he  saw  some  of  the  wound- 
ed seamen.  Visits  of  civility  passed  between  the 
president,  Captain  Richardson,  and  the  Chinese  ad- 
miral, as  well  as  the  deputed  officer  from  Canton ; 
and  on  the  8th  of  the  month,  the  frigate,  having  no 
farther  occasion  to  remain  in  China,  set  sail.  A 
number  of  attempts  were  subsequently  made  to  in- 
duce the  committee  to  make  a  false  statement  to 
the  viceroy ;  but,  when  all  these  had  failed,  a  paper 
was  received  from  the  Chinese  authorities,  fully  and 
freely  cpening  the  trade,  and  absolving  the  commit- 
tee from  responsibility.  They  accordingly  return- 
ed to  Canir)n  on  the  23d  February,  the  discussions 
having  lasted  just  six  weeks. 

The  local  government  was  on  this  occasion  for 
the  first  time  brought  to  acknowledge  that  the  com- 
mittee had  no  ccmrol  over,  nor  connexion  with, 
his  majesty's  ships.  The  subject  of  the  two  men's 
death  was  subsequently  renewed  in  1823,  but  event- 
ually dropped.  The  first  lieutenant  of  the  Topaze 
having  been  tried  by  a  court-martial  on  his  return 
home,  was  honourably  acquitted;  and  the  result 
was  conveyed  in  a  letter  from  the  president  of  the 
board  of  control  to  the  viceroy.  It  was,  however, 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  committee  to  present 
this  letter  or  not,  as  they  might  deem  most  proper ;, 
and  as  an  edict  had  in  tlie  meanwhile  b»«n  receiv- 


FIRE    OP    CANTON.  lOt 

ed  from  the  emperor,  acquiescing  in  the  conclusion 
of  the  discussions,  the  letter  was  withheld. 

A  calamity  of  fearful  extent,  affecting  equally  the 
Chinese  and  Europeans,  which  will  not  soon  be 
forgotten  at  Canton,  occurred  towards  the  end  of 
1822 ;  this  was  the  great  fire,  which  has  been  cal- 
culated to  have  equalled  in  its  ravages  that  of  Lon- 
don in  1666.  At  nine  o'clock,  on  the  night  of  the  1st 
November,  a  fire  broke  out  at  the  distance  of  about 
a  mile  northeast  of  the  factories,  and,  as  the  wind 
was  then  blowing  with  great  fury  from  the  north, 
it  soon  spread  with  such  fearful  rapidity  that  at  mid- 
night the  European  dwelUngs  appeared  to  be  threat- 
ened. Representations  in  writing  were  sent  from 
the  British  factory  to  the  viceroy,  offering  every 
assistance  with  engines  and  men,  and  recommend- 
ing that  the  houses  nearest  the  fire  should  be  pulled 
down  to  prevent  its  spreading.  This,  however,  was 
not  attended  to,  and  at  eight  o'clock  on  Saturday 
morning  the  factories  were  on  fire.  All  efforts  du- 
ring that  day  to  arrest  the  flames  were  rendered  in- 
effectual by  the  violence  of  the  wind,  and  on  Sun- 
day morning  every  thing  was  consumed,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  sets  of  apartments.  The  com- 
pany had  goods  to  a  very  considerable  amount 
burnt  in  their  warehouses  ;  but  their  treasury, 
which  was  arched  with  sohd  blocks  of  stone,  and 
secured  by  treble  doors,  and  which  contained  not 
much  less  than  a  million  of  dollars,  remained  safe  and 
entire,  though  surrounded  by  the  ruins  of  consu- 
med buildings.  It  was  said  that  full  50,000  Chinese 
were  rendered  houseless  by  this  calamity,  and  the 
numbers  who  lost  their  lives  were  very  considera- 
ble. A  poUce  and  guard  were  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  protect  property  near  the  river  and 
about  the  factories  ;  but  this  was  greatly  aided  by  a 
well-organized  body  of  armed  men  and  officers  from 
the  company's  ships,  who  relieved  each  other  by 
turns.     Without  these  precautions,  there  was  every 

Vol.  I.— K 


110  THE    CHINESE. 

reason  to  fear  a  general  pillage  from  the  multitudes 
of  vagabond  Chinese  which  had  been  brought  to- 
gether, and  seemed  ready  to  take  advantage  of  the 
confusion.  A  considerable  amount  of  property  was 
saved  by  means  of  boats  on  the  river,  and  these 
boats  for  some  time  served  many  of  the  Europeans 
as  their  only  available  lodging  ;  but,  through  the 
assistance  of  a  Hong  merchant,  who  lent  them  his 
house,  the  company  were  able  to  recommence  their 
business  in  a  week  after  the  fire.  Such  is  the  fre- 
quency of  Chinese  conflagrations  near  the  foreign 
factories,  that  the  recurrence  of  a  similar  catastro- 
phe may  at  any  time  be  viewed  as  a  probable 
event.* 

From  this  period  a  number  of  years  elapsed  du- 
ring which  affairs  at  Canton  proceeded  tranquilly, 
without  accident  or  hinderance  of  any  kind  ;  but  in 
the  meanwhile  the  mismanagement  or  dishonesty 
of  some  of  the  Hong  merchants  Avas  preparing  em- 
barrassments of  another  description.  Their  num- 
ber had  of  late  years  consisted  of  ten  or  eleven, 
and  of  these  one  or  two  of  the  poorer  individuals, 
who  had  never  enjoyed  much  credit  or  confidence, 
failed  for  a  small  amount,  without  producing  much 
effect  on  the  general  trade ;  but,  about  the  beginning 
of  1828,  the  known  difficulties  of  two  of  the  princi- 
pal Hongs  began  to  display  the  evil  eftects  of  a  sys- 
tem of  credit,  which  had  grown  out  of  the  regula- 
tions of  the  government  in  respect  to  the  payment 
of  the  Hong  debts. 

It  had  been  for  many  years  enacted,  by  an  order 
from  the  emperor,  that  the  whole  body  of  Hong 
merchants  should  be  liable  for  the  debts  of  their 
insolvent  brethren  to  Europeans.  It  was  at  the 
same  time  ordered,  that  no  money  obligations  should 


*  Another  great  fire  took  place  in  January,  1836,  by  which 
more  than  1000  houses  were  destroyed ;  but  the  factories  es- 
caped. 


FAILURE   OF  HONG   MERCHANTS.  Ill 

be  contracted  by  them  to  foreigners;  but  the  pro- 
hibition proved  utterly  ineffectual.  The  soUd  guar- 
antee of  the  Consoo,  or  general  body,  which  afforded 
every  certainty  to  the  European  or  American  capi- 
tahst  that  he  should  ultimately  recover  his  loan, 
whatever  might  be  the  fate  of  the  borrower,  gave 
to  the  Chinese  merchants  such  a  facihty  in  obtain- 
ing credit,  as  led  some  of  the  more  prodigal  or  less 
honest  ones  to  hicur  very  large  debts  at  the  usual 
Chinese  rate  of  10  and  12  per  cent.  One  of  them 
failed  in  1828  for  the  amount  of  more  tiian  a  million 
of  dollars.  He  was  banished  to  Tartary,  which,  in 
Canton  p]nglish,  is  called  "  going  to  the  cold  coun- 
try ;"  but  being  a  broken  constitution,  and  withal  a 
smoker  of  opium,  he  died  on  his  journey.  In  the 
following  year,  1829,  another  Hongist,  who  had  bor- 
rowed very  largely  of  P]uropeans  and  Americans, 
failed  for  a  nearly  equal  sum.  This  last,  however, 
was  altogetlier  a  fraudulent  transaction,  for  Chun- 
qua  (wiiich  was  the  man's  name)  made  off  to  his 
native  province  Avitli  a  large  portion  of  the  money: 
and  such  was  the  influence  of  his  family,  some  of 
whom  were  persons  of  high  official  rank,  that  he 
contrived  to  keep  his  ill-gotten  gains,  and  to  make 
the  Consoo  pay  his  creditors. 

These  two  failures,  to  the  aggregate  amount  of 
about  two  milhons  of  dollars,  produced,  as  might 
be  expected,  a  considerable  sensation  and  loud 
clamours  among  the  foreign  merchants  at  Canton. 
Discussions  subsequently  arose  with  the  Consoo, 
as  to  the  period  in  which  the  debts  were  to  be 
liquidated  ;  the  Hong  merchants  contending  for 
ten  annual  instalments,  while  the  creditors  would 
not  extend  it  beyond  six.  At  length,  by  the  pow- 
erful influence  of  the  select  committee,  which  w^as 
exerted  on  the  side  of  the  Europeans  and  Amer- 
icans, it  was  settled  that  both  the  insolvents'  debts 
should  be  finally  liquidated  by  the  end  of  1833, 
which  was  about  six  vears  from  the  occurrence  of 


112  THE    CHINESE. 

the  first  failure.  The  eyes  of  the  government  were 
however  opened  to  the  mischievous  consequences 
of  the  regulation,  which  obliged  the  corporation  of 
Hong  merchants  to  be  answerable  for  the  debts  of 
any  member  of  the  Consoo,  however  improvident 
or  dishonest ;  and  it  was  enacted,  that  from  hence- 
forth the  corporate  responsibility  should  cease. 
The  whole  amount  of  the  two  millions  was  strictly 
paid  up  at  the  end  of  the  limited  period ;  and  there 
was  no  real  cause  of  regret  to  the  foreign  merchants 
in  the  rule  which  made  every  man  answerable  for 
his  own  debts ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  previous 
arbitrary  system  had  generated  a  hollow  species  of 
credit,  which  was  any  thing  but  favourable  to  the 
trade  at  large  ;  and,  secondly,  the  debts,  though  they 
might  seem  to  have  been  paid  by  the  Hong  mer- 
chants, were  in  reality  paid  by  the  foreigners ;  as  a 
tax  on  imports  was  expressly  levied  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  this  had  even  been  known  to  remain 
unremitted,  after  the  object  of  its  creation  was 
answered. 

The  last  two  failures  had  reduced  the  number  of 
Hong  merchants  to  six,  a  body  altogether  inadequate 
to  conduct  the  European  trade ;  in  fact,  it  was  very 
little  better  than  the  emferor's  merchant,  or  "monster 
in  trade,"  noticed  in  the  last  chapter.  The  six 
themselves  were,  of  course,  in  no  way  anxious  that 
the  number  should  be  augmented ;  but  the  attention 
of  the  select  committee  became  seriously  directed 
to  that  object.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that,  notwith- 
standing the  close  monopoly  enjoyed  by  the  Consoo, 
and  the  opportunities  of  making  money  possessed 
by  its  members,  the  extortions  and  other  annoyances 
to  which  a  Hong  merchant  is  at  any  time  exposed, 
by  being  security  for,  or  having  any  connexion  with, 
foreigners,  are  such,  that  most  persons  of  capital 
are  disinclined  to  join  the  number.  As  the  local 
government  seemed  disposed  to  show  its  usual  in- 
difference and  contempt  for  the  representations  of 


DISCUSSIONS  WITH   THE  CHINESE.  113 

Strangers,  tlic  company's  fleet  of  1829  was  detained 
outside  the  river  on  its  arrival,  with  a  view  effectu- 
ally to  draw  attention  to  the  subject.* 

On  the  8th  September  an  address  was  sent  to  the 
viceroy,  in  which  the  principal  points  urged  were, 
the  necessity  lor  adding  to  the  number  of  Hong  mer- 
cliants ;  the  heavy  port-charge  on  ships  at  Wham- 
poa,  amounting  on  a  small  vessel  to  about  jC800 
sterling;  and  some  check  on  the  rapacity  of  the 
government  officers  connected  with  the  customs. 
The  reply  and  subsequent  proceedings  of  the  viceroy 
were  in  favour  of  making  new  Hong  merchants,  biit 
unsatisfactory  as  to  other  points ;  and  the  committee, 
on  the  I6th  November,  renewed  their  remonstrances, 
and  continued  the  detention  of  the  sliips  at  their 
present  anchorage.  The  local  authorities,  however, 
showed  no  disposition  to  swerve  from  their  last  dec- 
laration, and  tlie  viceroy  added,  "  As  to  commerce, 
let  the  said  nation  do  as  it  pleases ;  as  to  regulations, 
those  that  the  celestial  empire  fixes  must  be  obeyed." 
The  discussions  continued  without  any  alteration 
on  either  side  until  the  11th  January,  at  which  date 
the  necessity  was  contemplated  of  sending  the 
greater  number  of  ships  over  to  Manilla,  until  the 
Chinese  government  should  be  induced  to  concede 
the  points  in  dispute. 

The  committee,  at  the  same  time,  applied  to  the 
Governor-general  of  India  to  assist  them  by  forward- 
ing a  representation  to  Peking,  and  suggested  the 
expediency  of  some  ships  of  war  being  sent  to  give 
weight  to  their  representations :  the  supreme  gov- 
ernment, however,  declined  interfering  without  au- 
thority from  home.     There  is  reason  to  apprehend 

*  In  1832  a  newly-made  Hongist  took  for  his  establishment 
(according  to  custom)  a  pardcular  designation,  and  the  one  se- 
lected by  him  signitied  "  happiness,  or  prosperity,  complete :" 
but  this  was  rather  premature,  for,  before  he  could  begin  t>- 
all  his  capital  was  expended  in  fees  or  bribes  to  the  mai 
and  he  failed. 

K  2 


114  THE    CHINESE. 

that  the  Chinese  authorities  had  been  confirmed  in 
their  obstinacy  by  a  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  the 
committee  were  not  unanimous,  the  majority  being 
opposed  to  Mr.  WiUiam  Plowden,  the  chief  super- 
cargo, who  at  length,  finding  himself  at  variance 
with  his  colleagues,  and  of  little  weight  in  the  fac- 
tory, made  up  his  mind  to  quit  China,  which  he  did 
about  the  end  of  January.  The  viceroy,  on  the  2d 
February,  issued  an  edict,  stating  that  an  additional 
Hong  merchant  had  been  already  appointed,  and 
that  others  would  follow ;  that  the  debts  of  the  two 
bankrupt  Hongs  would  be  paid  ;  and  that  the  subject 
of  the  port-charges  had  been  referred  to  the  empe- 
ror. This  appeared  to  the  committee  sufficiently 
satisfactory  to  warrant  their  ordering  the  fleet  up 
to  Whampoa,  and  on  the  8th  of  the  month  the  vice- 
roy was  apprized  of  their  having  done  so.  By  the 
1st  of  March  three  new  Hongs  were  created. 

Matters  now  proceeded  in  peace  and  quietness, 
and  the  ships  were  all  laden  and  sent  home  as  usual ; 
but,  in  the  following  season,  events  occurred  which 
threatened  at  one  time  to  produce  much  confusion 
and  mischief.  The  detail  is  instructive,  as  it  shows 
from  what  small  and  contemptible  beginnings  the 
most  serious  results  may  ensue,  in  a  place  like 
Canton,  where  the  Chinese  and  strangers  live,  in 
respect  to  each  other,  very  much  in  what  the  law- 
yers call  "  a  state  of  nature,"  that  is,  governed  by 
no  rule  but  their  own  passions  or  interests.  A 
Swiss  watchmaker,  named  Bovet,  lodged  in  the 
same  factory  with  some  Parsees,*  having  aback  en- 
trance common  to  the  premises.  The  watchmaker, 
being  a  violent  fellow,  took  it  upon  himself  to  fasten 
up  this  gate,  on  the  ground  of  the  annoyance  that 

*  Natives  of  Bombay,  fire-worshippers,  or  disciples  of  Zoro- 
aster, and  the  real  representatives  of  those  ancient  Persians  who 
fought  with  the  Greeks.  They  left  their  country  after  its  con- 
quest by  the  Mahometans,  and  settled  in  the  west  of  India,  and 
are  the  most  commercial  of  our  Eastern  subjects. 


COMMITTEE    SUPERSEDED.  115 

he  experienced  from  the  free  passage.  This,  as 
might  be  expected,  very  soon  led  to  a  squabble : 
an  unfortunate  man,  named  Mackenzie,  master  of  a 
trading  vessel,  being  roused  by  a  loud  disturbance 
about  nightfall,  ran  dow^n  with  a  stick,  and  struck 
one  of  the  most  active  of  the  Parsees,  upon  which 
they  all  fell  upon  him,  and  inflicted  such  blows  as 
occasioned  his  death. 

The  Parsees  were  immediately  shipped  off  by  the 
committee  as  prisoners  to  Bombay ;  but  the  Chi- 
nese presently  applied  for  the  delivery  of  the  homi- 
cides for  trial  (or  rather  execution),  quoting  the 
case  of  the  Frenchman  who  had  killed  a  Portuguese 
in  1780.*  At  the  same  moment,  an  edict  was  is- 
sued by  the  viceroy,  insisting  on  the  removal  from 
Canton,  forthwith,  of  the  president's  lady,  who  had 
proceeded  thither  contrary  to  the  custom  by  which 
females  were  restricted  to  Macao  ;  and  no  unequiA^- 
ocal  threats  were  held  out,  that  force  would  be  re- 
sorted to  in  the  event  of  non-compliance.  This, 
combined  with  the  risk  to  which  Mackenzie's  mur- 
der seemed  to  expose  the  English,  led  the  commit- 
tee to  order  up  from  the  fleet  a  guard  of  about  a 
hundred  seamen,  and  a  couple  of  eighteen-pounders, 
informing  the  Hongists  that,  until  the  threats  were 
withdrawn,  these  men  should  not  be  removed. 
This  measure,  having  been  adopted  with  celerity  and 
vigour,  was  successful  in  intimidating  the  Chinese. 
An  assurance  was  given  that  no  violence  was  in- 
tended, upon  which  the  guns  and  men  were  ordered 
down  to  the  ships,  after  having  been  about  a  fort- 
night at  Canton. 

The  court  of  directors  had  in  the  meanwhile 
disapproved  of  the  detention  of  their  ships  in  the 
preceding  season,  and  superseded  the  committee, 
whose  successors  arrived  in  November,  1830,  soon 
after  the  events   above  related.    They  found,  as 

*  Page  66. 


1  16  THE  CHINESE. 

might  be  expected,  much  irritation  prevaihng  on  all 
sides,  and  were  assailed  by  papers  from  the  viceroy, 
insisting  on  the  withdrawal  from  Canton  of  all  the 
foreign  ladies.  Those  actually  on  the  spot  were 
allowed  to  remain  there  until  the  conclusion  of  the 
winter  season,  but  none  came  up  in  the  following 
year,  as  it  was  not  deemed  a  point  of  sufficient 
consequence  to  proceed  to  extremities  upon ;  and 
indeed  the  very  discussion  itself  rendered  Canton 
an  undesirable  residence  for  females  of  any  deli- 
cacy while  it  continued,  the  language  and  epithets 
used  by  the  Chinese,  in  reference  to  them,  being  of 
a  shockhig  description.  But  matters  of  a  graver 
character  were  soon  forced  upon  the  consideration 
of  the  company's  authorities. 

A  considerable  encroachment  had  been  made 
upon  the  river,  subsequent  to  the  rebuilding  of  the 
foreign  factories  after  they  were  burnt  down  by  the 
great  fire  of  18-2-J,  the  new  ground  being  principally 
composed  of  the  rubbish  and  ruins  of  the  former 
buildings.  The  space  in  front  of  the  company's 
factory  had  been  extended  in  common  with  the  rest, 
and  there  remained  only  a  corner  to  fill  up  in  order 
to  complete  a  small  square,  which  it  was  intended 
to  plant  with  shrubs,  and  convert  into  a  garden  for 
exercise  and  recreation.  This  seemed  from  the 
very  commencement  to  excite  the  spleen  of  the 
Chinese,  and  the  committee  lately  superseded  had 
been  repeatedly  required  to  undo  the  work.  As  this 
appeared  merely  vexatious,  the  demand  had  been 
unheeded ;  and  even  when  the  Chinese,  during  the 
absence  of  the  factory,  had  destroyed  a  portion  of 
the  work,  it  was  subsequently  restored  by  the  aid 
of  a  party  from  the  siiips.  The  newly-appointed 
committee  found  things  in  this  state  on  their  arrival 
in  China,  and  it  w^as  not  long  before  an  explosion 
took  place. 

Some  time  after  the  departure  of  the  last  ship  of 
the  season,  and  during  the  absence  of  the  commit- 


FACTORY    INVADED.  117 

tee  from  Canton,  the  fooyuen,  or  viceroy's  deputy, 
came  suddenly,  on  the  morning  of  the  12th  May,  to 
the  factory,  and,  sending  for  the  Hong  merchants 
and  linguists,  demanded  of  them  an  explanation  re- 
garding the  completion  of  the  garden  and  quay  in 
front  of  the  company's  factory,  contrary  to  the  or- 
ders of  the  viceroy.     When  these  pleaded  their  in- 
nocence of  any  participation  in  the  business,  chains 
were  sent  for,  and  the  linguists  put  in  confinement, 
while  the  chief  Hong  merchant  remained  on  his 
knees  until  the  hoppo,  who  was  present,  had  inter- 
ceded for  him.     An  order  was  given  to  remove  the 
quay  and  restore  it  to  its  former  condition,  on  pain 
of  death  to  the  wretched  Howqua  and  linguist ;  and 
the  fooyuen,  ordering  the  late  king's  picture  to  be 
uncovered,  seated  himself  down  with  his  back  to  it. 
Soon  after  this  occurrence  an  edict  was  published, 
containing  eight  regulations  for  the  conduct  of  for- 
eign intercourse,  which  tended  to  make  the  con- 
dition of  Europeans  in  China  even  worse  than  it 
had  been.     No  persons  were  to  remain  during  the 
summer  at  Canton ;  the  native  servants  were  to  be 
under  stricter  surveilhince  ;  all  foreigners  were  to 
submit  to  the  government  and  control  of  the  Hong 
merchants,  and  not  to  quit  the  factories  in  which 
they  lived ;  none  might  move  up  and  down  the  river 
without  a  license ;   and  restrictions  were  contem- 
plated on  the  mode  of  addressing  the  government, 
contrary  to   the   stipulations  of  1814.     In   conse- 
quence of  these  threatening  proceedings  of  the  local 
government,  notices  in  Enghsh  and  Chinese  were 
issued  by  the  committee,  stating  that,  unless  the  ap- 
prehended evils   were   redressed  or  removed,  the 
commercial  intercourse  would  be  suspended  on  the 
1st  of  August  following.     A  letter  was  at  the  same 
time  despatched  to  the  Governor-general  of  India, 
suggesting  the  expediency  of  an  address  from  his 
lordship  to  the  viceroy,  to  be  conveyed  by  one  of 
his  majesty's  ships.    At  the  end  of  May  the  Eng- 


118  THE  CHINESE. 

lish  merchants  and  agents  at  Canton  published  a 
set  of  resolutions,  concurring  in  all  tliat  had  been 
done  by  the  committee,  as  the  only  safeguard 
against  additional  evils  and  encroachments. 

On  the  9th  June  an  edict  was  received  from  the 
viceroy  (who  had,  in  the  meantime,  been  absent 
on  accoimt  of  an  insurrection  in  Hainan),  sanction- 
ing what  the  fooyuen  had  done,  and  forwarding 
the  emperor's  confirmalion  of  the  eight  regulations 
which  threatened  the  trade.  The  sanction  of  the 
emperor  having  been  tlius  obtained  to  the  noxious 
clauses,  their  abrogation  no  longer  rested  with  the 
local  government.  It  tlierefore  became  necessary 
for  the  committee  to  review  their  position,  as  the 
probability,  or  rather  possibility,  of  any  alteration 
in  these  threatened  regulations  previous  to  the  1st 
August  could  no  longer  be  contemplated.  They 
accordingly  came  to  the  resolution  of  postponing 
any  measures  as  to  stopping  the  trade,  and  any 
active  steps  towards  obtainiiig  a  redress  of  grievan- 
ces, until  the  result  of  their  reference  to  India  could 
be  ascertained.  This  was  accordingly  made  known 
by  a  second  notice,  and  the  Bengal  government 
was  apprized  of  the  resolution.  In  the  meanwhile, 
the  stir  made  by  the  conimittoe  appeared  not  to  have 
been  without  its  effect  upon  the  Chinese  authorities, 
for  no  attempt  was  made  to  put  the  new  regulations 
in  force,  and  Europeans  carried  on  their  business 
unmolested  at  Canton. 

In  the  month  of  November,  his  majesty's  ship 
ChaUengpr  arrived  from  Bengal,  conveying  the  let- 
ter of  remonstrance  from  the  governor-general  to 
the  viceroy.  After  some  negotiation,  this  was  de- 
livered in  a  suitable  manner  to  a  deputation  of 
mandarins;  but  tlie  written  replies,  though  they 
disavowed  aii}^  intention  of  insult  or  outrage  to  the 
factory,  were  so  far  from  satisfactory,  and  conveyed 
in  so  objectionable  a  mode,  that  the  committee  re- 
fused to  accept  them.     Thus  the  matter  rested,  and 


TRADE    TO    NORTHEASTWARD.  119 

subsequent  instructions  from  England  put  a  stop  to 
all  farther  proceedings  on  this  subject. 

The  smuggling  trade  in  opium,  which  the  exac- 
tions of  the  Portuguese  at  Macao  drove  from  t;i:jt 
place,  in  1822,  to  Lintin,  a  small  island  between 
Macao  and  the  entrance  of  the  Canton  river,  in- 
creased with  extraordinary  rapidity  from  its  first 
commencement,  in  consequence  of  the  negligence 
or  connivance  of  the  Chinese  government.  This 
soon  led  to  hopes  (Avhich  were  at  length  destined  to 
be  disappointed)  that  a  surreptitious  trade  of  the 
same  kind  might  be  extended  along  the  whole  coast 
of  China  to  the  eastward,  not  only  for  opium,  but 
for  manufactured  goods.  The  local  government  of 
Canton  had  placed  itself  in  so  false  a  position,  with 
respect  to  the  emperor  as  well  as  to  Europeans,  by 
its  long  course  of  secret  and  corrupt  practices  in 
relation  to  the- prohibited  drug,  that  it  was  even  dis- 
abled from  interfering  to  protect  its  own  subjects  at 
liintin,  where  the  armed  smugglers  lay  in  open  de- 
fiance of  all  law  and  control.  Chinese  Avere  on 
several  occasions  shot  from  the  smuggling  ships 
with  perfect  impunity.  The  relations  of  the  de- 
ceased, as  usnal,  appealed  to  the  mandarins,  but  the 
anomalous  situation  of  these  functionaries,  in  re- 
spect to  the  Lintin  trade,  always  obliged  them  in  the 
end  to  evade  or  relinquish  the  demand  for  satisfac- 
tion; and  the  company's  authorities  of  course  dis- 
claimed all  responsibility  for  proceedings  out  of  the 
limits  of  the  river,  where  the  smuggling  system 
being  connived  at  by  the  mandarins  themselves, 
they  must  take  the  consequences  of  their  own  ini- 
quity. 

The  attempts  to  establish  a  surreptitious  trade 
were  soon  extended  from  Lintin  to  the  eastern 
coasts ;  but  the  success  did  not  answer  expectation. 
Beyond  the  limits  of  the  Canton  province,  as  all 
European  trade  was  expressly  prohibited  by  a  long- 
established  ordinance  of  the  countrv,  the  mandarins 


120  THE    CHINESE. 

had  not  the  same  shelter  for  corrupt  practices  ;  and,, 
though  opium  might  be  introduced  in  small  quanti- 
ties, a  smuggling  trade  in  manufactures  proved  al- 
together visionary.  The  conductor  of  one  of  these 
experiments,  in  1831,  reported  that  he  could  obtain 
"  no  traffic  besides  opium ;  nor  had  any  of  the  ves- 
sels which  had  gone  to  the  eastward  been  ever  able 
to  deal  in  other  articles,  except  occasionally  a  little 
saltpetre."  It  soon  appeared,  in  short,  that,  with- 
out the  consent  of  the  supreme  government  of 
Peking,  no  prospect  existed  of  an  advantageous 
trade  in  manufactures,  except  at  Canton. 

So  much,  however,  had  been  both  imagined  and 
asserted  at  home,  regarding  the  facilities  for  trade 
at  the  prohibited  ports  of  China,  that  it  seemed  de- 
sirable to  the  select  committee,  in  1832,  to  try  a 
final  experiment,  in  order  to  prove  or  disprove  what 
had  been  given  in  evidence  before  Pariiament. 
After  ascertaining  to  what  extent  the  disposition 
of  the  local  authorities  on  the  coast  might  favour 
such  a  smuggling  trade,  the  next  point  of  inquiry 
related  to  the  ports  or  stations  at  which  it  might 
most  conveniently  be  carried  on.  The  Lord  Am- 
herst, a  small  country  ship,  was  accordingly  sent 
on  this  service,  in  charge  of  one  of  the  company's 
servants,  who  was  accompanied  by  Mr.  GutzlaiF, 
well  versed  in  the  spoken  language  of  China,  and 
especially  of  the  coast.  Every  possible  advantage 
was  thus  afforded  to  the  experiment,  and  the  se- 
lection of  the  goods  was  as  various,  and  as  well 
adapted  to  the  occasion,  as  a  previous  knowledge 
of  the  tastes  or  wants  of  the  Chinese  could  suggest. 
The  ship  sailed  on  the  26th  of  February,  and  did 
not  return  until  the  4th  September.  Among  other 
points  on  the  coast,  she  touched  at  Amoy  and 
Foochowfoo  in  Fokien,  at  Ningpo  in  Chekeang, 
and  at  Shanghae  in  Keangnan.  On  the  return, 
Corea  and  Loo-choo  were  visited.  No  device  of 
ingenuity  or  enterprise  was  spared  to  dispose  of 


TRADE    TO    NORTHEASTWARD.  121 

the  goods  on  board,  and  to  establish  a  traffic  with 
the  natives.  These  showed  a  very  hospitable  dispo- 
sition towards  the  strangers ;  but  all  commerce  was 
effectually  prevented  by  the  mandarins,  except  in 
one  or  two  trivial  instances.  Some  of  the  officers 
of  government  were  civil  and  forbearing,  and  even 
accepted  of  small  presents ;  others,  less  conde- 
scending, were  fairly  bullied  by  the  people  in  the 
Amherst,  their  junks  boarded,  or  their  doors  knocked 
down,  and  their  quarters  invaded.  Still  the  same 
vigilance  was  exercised  to  prevent  trade,  and  trade 
was  prevented. 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  voyage,  it  was  stated  in 
the  report,  that  "  much  alarm  and  suspicion  had  in- 
variably been  manifested,  on  the  part  of  the  local 
governments,  at  their  appearance;  and  to /ear  might 
be  mainly  attributed  the  civility  which  on  some  oc- 
casions they  experienced."  As  a  commercial  spec- 
ulation, it  was  observed,  the  voyage  had  failed,  for 
they  had  "  only  succeeded  in  disposing  of  a  por^on 
of  the  goods  shipped."  These  goods,  being  intended 
for  experiment  only,  and  not  for  profit,  amounted 
only  to  about  200  bales  in  the  aggregate,  but  com- 
prised every  variety  of  articles  in  demand  at  Canton. 
The  larger  portion  were  brought  back  exactly  as 
they  went,  and,  of  the  few  things  which  were  not 
returned,  a  considerable  number  had  been  given 
away.  The  loss  on  the  expedition  amounted  to 
i:5,647. 

In  proceeding  to  the  northward,  the  Amherst  found 
the  authorities  especially  unfriendly,  and  hostile  to 
commerce.  "  Our  sudden  appearance  on  the  coast 
(says  Gutzlaff's  journal)  spread  general  terror." 
The  committee,  in  their  report  to  the  directors,  ad- 
mitted the  unsatisfactoiy  result  of  the  experiment, 
and  acknowledged  that,  though  the  Chinese  natives 
were  by  no  means  averse  to  a  more  extended  inter- 
course, the  government  had  displayed  the  most  ef- 
fectual opposition.     The  expedition  was  upon  the 

Vol.  I.— L 


122  THE  CHINESE. 

vvhoie  condcniiicd  by  the  court;  and  their  animad- 
versions were  purticidarly  directed  against  the  fic- 
titious characters  and  false  names  assumed  by  those 
who  conducted  the  voyage.  They  commented  on 
the  inconsistency  of  the  frequent  complaints  against 
the  duphcity  of  the  Chinese,  wliile  the  Enghsh,  at 
the  same  time,  were  presenting  themselves  in  an 
assumed  shape,  and  in  direct  violation  of  the  laws 
of  the  countr}'. 

With  some  it  may  be  a  question  hov/  far  the  sys- 
tem of  exclusion,  practised  by  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment, justifies  such  means  in  order  to  defeat  it ;  but 
there  can  be  none  whatever  with  regard  to  those 
deeds  of  violence  on  the  part  of  individuals,  Avho 
have  themselves  attempted  no  other  justification 
than  the  extent  of  the  provocation.  Among  these 
instances  may  be  mentioned  the  shooting  of  Chi- 
nese from  the  smuggling  ships  near  Lintin  in  1831 
and  1833,  and  the  notorious  case  of  an  English  sub- 
ject, who,  by  his  own  confession  in  the  papers,  ac- 
tually set  fire  to  a  mandarin's  house.  There  can  be 
no  permanent  peace  or  security  for  either  natives 
or  strangers  as  long  as  acts  like  these  can  be  com- 
mitted with  impunit}'^;  and,  under  the  circumstances 
of  our  anomalous  relations  with  the  country,  it  befits 
our  gOA'ernment  to  place  a  very  summary  control- 
ling power  in  the  hands  of  whomsoever  it  appoints 
as  its  representative  in  China. 

Towards  the  close  of  1833,  when  the  authority  of 
the  company  was  drawing  to  an  end,  and  before  it 
had  been  replaced  by  any  other,  the  effects  were 
seen  in  a  series  of  violences  that  took  place  not  far 
from  Lintin,  where  some  furious  engagements  oc- 
curred with  the  natives,  and  one  of  them  was  killed. 
In  revenge  for  this,  an  unfortunate  lascar,  belonging 
to  the  smuggling  sliip  principally  concerned,  wlio 
had  been  taken  prisoner  by  the  enraged  Chinese, 
w^as  put  to  death  by  them.  An  organized  attack  of 
armed  boats  from  the  opium-ships  was  now  prepared 


SMUGGLING  SHIPS.  123 

against  the  town  or  village  near  which  the  occur- 
rence took  place ;  but  the  natives  were  prepared 
for  them,  and  such  a  fire  was  opened  from  a  small 
fort  when  the  boats  made  their  appearance,  that  it 
was  thought  better  to  return  quietly^  without  at- 
tempting to  land. 
•  The  relatives  of  the  deceased  Chinese,  not  yet 
satisfied,  apphed  to  their  government  for  redress  ; 
but  the  transaction  had  occurred  in  connexion  with 
the  opium  trade,  and  the  provincial  authorities  found 
themselves  hampered  with  the  usual  dithculties.  A 
singular  device  was  fallen  upon  by  the  Hong  mer- 
chants : — One  of  these,  by  authority  of  the  govern- 
ment, caused  to  be  conveyed  to  Canton  some  indi- 
vidual out  of  a  trading  junk,  in  the  harbour  of  Macao, 
who,  for  a  bribe  or  reward,  was  to  personate  the 
cidprit  who  had  shot  the  Chinese.  He  was  to  be 
imprisoned  for  a  certain  time,  and,  previous  to  his 
trial,  was  to  be  furnished  with  a  prepared  story 
which  was  to  acquit  him  of  the  murder,  and  con- 
vert the  case  into  one  of  mere  accident  or  misfor- 
tune. Information  of  this  scheme  reached  the  se- 
lect committee  at  Canton,  who,  though  they  were 
pretty  well  assured  of  the  safety  of  the  individual, 
and  quite  certain  that  he  was  no  British  subject, 
still  felt  themselves  bound  to  address  the  viceroy, 
and  to  protest  against  these  strange  proceedings, 
with  which  the  English  name  was  associated  by  re- 
port. After  some  trouble,  and  a  renewed  corre- 
spondence, a  public  edict  was  issued  by  the  govern- 
ment, declaring  that  the  affair  in  which  the  man 
was  said  to  be  involved  was  accidental,  and  "  as- 
suredly would  not  lead  to  the  forfeiture  of  his 
life;"  and  it  was  subsequently  understood  that  he 
was  liberated. 

On  the  22d  of  April,  1834,  the  trade  of  the  East 
India  Company  with  China,  after  having  lasted 
just  two  hundred  years,  terminated  according  to 
the  provisions  of  the  new  act,  and  several  private 


124  THE  CHINESE. 

sliips  soon  afterward  quitted  Canton  with  cargoes 
of  tea  for  the  British  islands.  One  vessel  had, 
previous  to  that  date,  sailed  direct  for  England, 
under  a  special  license  from  the  authorities  of  the 
East  India  Company.  A  most  important  national 
experiment  was  now  to  be  tried,  the  results  of 
which  alone  could  set  at  rest  the  grand  question  of 
the  expediency  of  free  trade  against  the  Chinese 
monopoly.  The  success  of  it  (whenever  this  shall 
have  been  established  beyond  dispute)  will  be  uni- 
versally hailed,  not  only  as  a  vast  national  benefit, 
but  as  a  signal  corroboration  of  the  leading  princi- 
ple in  the  comparatively  new  science  of  political 
economy.  Years,  however,  must  elapse  before  we 
can  judge  of  its  effects  in  counterworking  the  Hong 
monopoly,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  adding  strength  to 
that  combination. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GEOGRAPHICAL    SKETCH    OF   CHINA. 

Eighteen  Provinces  of  China.— Comprise  about  twenty  degrees 
of  latitude,  by  twenty  of  longitude. — Extremes  of  Heat  and 
Cold.— Principal  Chains  of  Mountains.— Two  great  Rivers. 
— The  Grand  Canal.— Crossing  the  Yellow  River.— Great 
Wall- Province  of  the  Capital.— Other  Provinces.— Independ- 
ent Mountaineers. — Chain  of  volcanic  symptoms  in  the  west 
of  China. — Manchow  and  Mongol  Tartary. — Neighbouring 
and  tributary  countries. — Chinese  account  of  Loo-choo — of 
Japan. 

•  This  chapter  will  be  principally  devoted  to  a 
succinct  view  of  the  chief  geographical  features  of 
China  Proper,  under  which  may  be  included,  on 
account  of  their  unparalleled  magnitude,  and  the 
important  stations  which  they  hold  in  the  maps  of 


GEOGRAPHICAL  SKETCH  OF  CHINA.  125 

the  country,  s.  particular  description  of  the  Imperial 
Canal,  and  of  the  Great  Wall.  The  scientific  skill 
of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  accomplished  a  sur^^ey  of 
the  whole  of  this  fine  country  on  trigonometrical 
principles,  so  admirably  correct  as  to  admit  of  little 
improvement ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  in  India,  there  is  no  part  of  Asia  so 
well  laid  down  as  China. 

Since  the  time  of  the  Jesuits'  survey,  however, 
an  alteration  has  taken  place  in  the  divisions  of  the 
country.  The  provinces  of  China,  v.iiich  then  con- 
sisted o{  fifteen  in  all,  have  been  increased,  by  the 
subdivision  of  three  of  the  largest,  to  eighteen.  Ke- 
ang-nan  has  been  split  into  Keang-soo  and  Gan-hoey, 
Hoo-kuang  intq  Hoo-nan  and  Hoo-pe,  and  the  western 
part  of  Shensy  has  been  extended,  and  called  Kan- 
so.  These  eighteen  provinces  constitute  a  compact 
area,  extending  (if  Ave  leave  out  the  island  of  Haen- 
an)  from  about  21*^  to  41°  of  north  latitude,  and  meas- 
uring in  extreme  length  from  nortli  to  south  about 
1200  geographical  miles,  with  an  average  breadth 
from  east  to  west  of  nearly  20^  of  longitude,  or 
something  less  than  the  extent  north  and  south. 
Perhaps  no  country  in  the  world  of  the  same  mag- 
nitude can  be  considered  upon  the  whole  as  more 
favoured  in  point  of  climate.  Being  situated,  how- 
ever, on  the  eastern  side  of  a  great  continent,  Chi- 
na follows  the  general  rule  which  observation  has 
sanctioned  in  attributing  to  regions  so  placed  an 
excess  of  both  cold  and  heat  at  opposite  seasons  of 
the  year,  which  its  precise  position  in  regard  to  lat- 
itude would  not  lead  us  to  expect.  In  the  month  of 
September,  near  Peking,  Lord  Amherst's  embassy 
found  the  thermometer  occasionally  above  90  ;  while 
the  huge  sohd  blocks  of  ice  which  were  at  the 
same  time  carried  about  for  use,  and  exposed  on 
the  stalls,  proved  the  severity  of  the  cold  in  winter. 
Im  the  Yellow  Sea,  during  the  month  of  July,  and  al 
35°  north  latitude,  the  temperature  of  the  water  at 
L2 


126  THE    CHINESE. 

40  fathoms  proved  to  be  65°,  while  that  of  the  air 
was  between  80°  and  90°.  Even  at  Canton,  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  empire,  and  nearly  in  the 
latitude  of  Calcutta,  the  mercury  frequently  falls 
below  freezing-point  during  the  nights  of  January, 
while  in  summer  it  sometimes,  though  not  often, 
rises  to  lOQo.  Notwithstanding  these  apparent  ex- 
tremes of  heat  and  cold,  the  climate  must  be  gene- 
rally characterized  as  highly  salubrious — a  circum- 
stance no  doubt  arising  in  great  measure  from  the 
extension  of  cultivation  and  drainage.  As  a  con- 
firmation of  the  observations  of  Humboldt,  in  his 
treatise  of  Isothermal  Lines,  it  may  be  added,  that 
the  French  missionaries  were  struck  by  the  resem- 
blance which  the  climate  and  products  of  northern 
China  and  Tartary  bore  to  those  of  the  east  coast 
of  North  America ;  and  that  the  wild  plant  ginseng, 
long  a  monopoly  of  the  emperor  in  the  Manchow 
country,  has  been  imported  in  large  quantities  by 
the  American  ships  to  Canton,  to  the  great  surprise 
of  the  Chinese. 

The  whole  surface  of  China  is  varied  in  eleva- 
tion, rising  generally  in  terraces  from  the  sea  to- 
wards the  west,  but  there  would  seem  at  the  same 
time  to  be  no  mountains  of  very  remarkable  height. 
The  principal  chains  are  two.  One  of  these  ex- 
tends from  Yun-nan  along  the  borders  of  Kuei-chow 
and  Kuang-sy,  passing  to  the  north  of  Canton  prov- 
ince, where  a  road  is  cut  through  the  TNIei-ling  pass, 
which  has  been  described  in  both  our  embassies :  it 
then  takes  a  northeast  direction  through  Fokien, 
and  terminates  in  Che-keang.  The  larger  portion 
of  the  ridge  to  the  northwest  of  Canton  province 
forms  the  inaccessible  country  (at  least  to  the  na- 
tive government)  of  the  Meaou-tse,  who  have  never 
entirely  submitted  to  the  Tartars.  Even  in  Chinese 
maps  their  country  is  left  a  blank.  The  second 
principal  chain  of  mountains  extends  from  Sse  chuen 
to  Shensy,  causing  the  Yellow  river  to. make  an  ab- 


RIVERS.  127 

rupt  bend  northward  through  the  great  wall.  There 
are,  besides,  mountains  of  considerable  elevation 
westward  of  Peking,  towards  Shan-sy  province,  but 
the  plains  from  which  they  rise  are  little  raised 
above  the  sea. 

The  two  principal  rivers  of  China  occupy  a  very 
high  rank  in  the  geographical  history  of  the  globe. 
Taking  the  Thames  as  unit.  Major  Rennell  estima- 
ted the  proportions  of  the  Yangtse-keang  and  Yel- 
low river  at  fifteen  and  a  half  and  thirteen  and  a 
half  respectively,  and  they  are  secondary  only  to 
the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi.  The  Yangtse- 
keang,  the  river,  or  the  "  son  of  the  sea,"  has  been 
by  some  people  styled  the  Blue  river,  but  there  is 
no  such  name  for  it  in  Chinese.  It  rises  in  Koko- 
nor,  the  country  between  Thibet  and  China,  not  far 
from  the  sources  of  the  Yellow  river ;  turning  sud- 
denly south,  it  makes  an  abrupt  bend  through 
the  provinces  of  Yun-nan  and  Sse-chuen,  where  it 
takes  the  name  of  the  "  Golden-sanded  river;"  and 
then  flowing  northeast  and  east,  it  subsequently 
makes  a  gentle  bend  southward,  and  receives  the 
superfluous  waters  of  the  Tong-ting  Hoo,  the  lar- 
gest lake  of  China;  thence,  in  its  course  towards 
the  sea,  it  serves  as  a  discharger  to  another  large 
lake,  the  Poyang  Hoo,  in  Keang-sy  province  ;  after 
which  it  runs  nearly  northeast,  and  flows  past  Nan- 
king into  the  ocean,  which  it  reaches  exactly  under 
the  thirty-second  parallel  of  latitude.  This  great 
stream  runs  with  such  a  strong  and  prevailing  ebb, 
that  Lord  Amherst's  embassy  found  great  difficulty 
in  saihng  up  its  course  towards  the  Poyang  lake, 
being  unable  to  make  any  way  at  all,  except  with  a 
strong  northeasterly  breeze.  The  flood  tide  was 
felt  no  higher  than  Kua-chow,  below  Nanking. 

The  Yellow  river  rises  also  m  the  country  of 
Kokonor,  but  soon  turnmg  as  abruptly  north  as  the 
Keang  does  south,  it  passes  across  the  great  wall, 
and  makes  an  elbow  round  the  territory  of  the  Or- 


128  THE    CHINESE. 

tous  ;  passing  back  again  across  the  wall,  it  flows 
due  south,  and  forms  the  boundary  of  Shan-sy  and 
Shensy;  whence  it  turns  shai-ply  eastward  and 
reaches  the  sea  in  latitude  34°.  From  the  exces- 
sive rapidity  of  its  stream,  this  river  is  nearly  umiav- 
igable  through  its  greater  lengtli.  In  the  old  maps 
of  China,  the  Yellow  river  has  been  represented  as 
flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Pechele,  north  of  the  Shan- 
tung promontory.  If,  then,  in  the  construction  of 
the  canal  under  Koblai  Khan,  its  ancient  course 
was  turned,  it  is  possible  that  this  violence  to  na- 
ture has  occasioned  the  constant  recurrence  of  the 
dreadful  accidents  which  attend  the  bursting  of  its 
artificial,  but  ill-constructed,  banks  snd  dikes.  It  is 
a  source  of  perpetual  anxiet)?-  and  heavy  expense  to 
the  government,  and  there  is  a  tax  on  the  Hong 
merchants  at  Canton  expressly  on  this  account. 
The  enormous  quantity  of  mud  held  in  suspension 
by  the  waters  of  the  Yellov\^  river  (whence  its  name) 
causes  depositions  at  its  mouth  which  tend  rapidly 
to  lessen  the  depth  of  water.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  two  gi-eat  rivers  of  China,  which  rise  at  a  small 
distance  from  each  other,  after  taking  opposite 
courses  to  the  north  and  south,  and  being  separated 
by  a  distance  of  full  fifteen  degrees  of  latitude, 
reach  the  sea  within  two  degrees  of  the  same  point. 
The  coast  of  China,  south  of  the  promontory  of 
Shantung,  is  generally  bold  and  rocky,  except  at 
the  points  where  the  Yellov/  river  and  Yangtse- 
keang  empty  themselves.  The  province  of  Peking 
is  a  sandy  flat,  and  the  gulf  vvliich  skirts  it  extremely 
shallow,  so  that  a  large  ship  cannot  approach  the 
shore  within  many  miles.  The  whole  coast  of  the 
empire  abounds  in  safe  and  commodious  harbours, 
of  which  those  on  the  south  have  been  accurately 
surveyed  under  the  East  India  Company.  The 
cast  coast,  however,  though  very  correctly  traced  in 
the  missionary  maps,  has  still  to  be  nautically  sur- 
veyed for  the  pui-pose  of  shipping.    Generally  speak- 


GRAND  CANAL.  129 

ing,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Peking  river  to  Chusan, 
the  sea  has  been  found  to  be  as  free  from  danger  as 
in  any  part  of  the  world. 

For  the  internal  commerce  of  the  empire,  how- 
ever, the  Chinese  are  rendered  almost  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  coast  navigation  by  their  Imperial  canal, 
which,  in  point  of  extent  and  magnitude  of  under- 
taking, is,  as  w^ell  as  the  great  wall,  unrivalled  by 
any  other  works  of  the  kind  in  the  whole  world. 
The  canal,  as  we  have  already  had  occasion  to 
notice,  was  principally  the  work  of  Koblai  Khan 
and  his  immediate  successors  of  the  Yven  race.  In 
the  MS.  of  a  Mongol  historian,  named  Rashid-ud- 
deen,  written  in  A.  D.  1307,  and  made  available  to 
us  by  MM.  Von  Hammer  and  Klaproth,  there  is  the 
following  curious  notice  of  it : — "  The  canal  ex- 
tends from  Khanbalik  (Peking)  to  Khinsai*  and 
Zeytoon  ;  ships  can  navigate  it,  and  it  is  forty  days' 
journey  in  length.  When  the  ships  arrive  at  the 
sluices,  they  are  raised  up,  whatever  be  their  size, 
by  means  of  machines,  and  they  are  then  let  down 
on  the  other  side  into  the  water."  This  is  an  exact 
description  of  the  practice  at  the  present  day,  as 
m?y  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  accounts  of  the 
two  English  embassies. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  although  the 
canal  has  been  generally  considered  to  extend  from 
Tien-tsin,  near  Peking,  to  Hangchow-foo  in  Che- 
keang,  being  about  600  geographical  miles,  the 
canal,  'properly  so  called,  that  is,  the  Chd-ho,  or 
"  river  of  floodgates,"  commences  only  at  Lintsing- 
choWjiii  Shantung,  and  continues  beyond  the  Yellow 
river.  The  principal  river  that  feeds  it  is  the  Wvn- 
ho,  rising  from  the  Taeshan  in  Shantung,  and  falling 
into  the  canal  at  its  highest  elevation,  in  a  line  per- 
pendicular to  its  course.     The  waters  of  the  river 

*  Kingsze,  or  capital,  tne  present  Hangchow-foo,  the  residence 
of  the  Soong  dynasty. 


130  THE    CHINESE. 

Striking"  with  force  against  a  strong  bulwark  of  stone 
that  supports  the  western  bank,  part  of  them  flow 
to  the  northward,  and  part  southward ;  at  this  point 
is  the  temple  of  the  "  dragon  king,"  or  genius  of  the 
watery  element,  who  is  supposed  to  have  tlie  canal 
in  his  special  keeping. 

One  principal  merit  of  this  great  work  is  its  acting- 
as  a  drain  to  the  swampy  countiy  tlu'ough  which  it 
flows,  from  Tien-tsin  to  the  Yangtse-keang.  Being 
carried  through  the  lowest  levels,  and  communi- 
cating with  the  neighbouring  tracts  by  floodgates,  it 
has  rendered  available  much  that  would  otherwise 
be  an  irreclaimable  swamp.  As  it  is,  however, 
some  individuals  of  the  embassy,  in  passing  through 
this  desolate  flat  in  1816,  were  laid  up  with  inter- 
mittents  of  rather  malignant  type.  ^  The  large  city 
of  Hoae-gan-foo,  near  the  Yellow  river,  extends  for 
about  three  miles  very  much  below  the  level  of  the 
canal.  In  passing  along  its  dilapidated  walls,  upon 
which  we  looked  down  from  our  boats,  it  was  im- 
possible not  to  shudder  at  the  idea  of  any  ciccident 
occurring  to  the  banks  of  the  canal,  as  the  total 
destruction  of  the  town  must  be  certain.  Near  this 
point  resides  the  ho-tsoong,  or  surveyor-general 
of  the  river,  v/ho  has  charge  of  its  banks. 

Many  readers  will  be  aware  that  to  the  period  of 
Y'aou,  something  more  than  2000  years  before  our 
era,  the  Chinese  carry  back  their  tradition  of  an 
extensive  flood,  which  by  some  persons  has  been 
identified  with  the  miiversal  deluge  recorded  in  the 
Old  Testament.  After  a  careful  examination  of 
their  own  written  accounts,  we  feel  persuaded  that 
this  deluge  of  the'  Chinese  is  described  rather  as 
interrupting  the  business  of  agriculture,  than  as 
involving  a  general  destruction  of  the  human  race. 
It  is  observed,  in  the  book  of  Mencius  (Ch.  Y.),  that 
the  great  Yu  "'  opened  nine  channels ;  Y^u  was  eight 
years  abroad  regulating  the  waters,"  This  could 
hardly  mean  the  universal  deluge,  and  in  fact  seems 


GRAND    CANAL.  133 

to  have  been  some  aggravation  only  of  the  natural 
condition  of  those  low  countries  through  which  tlie 
Yellow  river  and  canal  now  flow.  Were  they  both 
of  them  to  burst  thei^  banks  at  present,  the  deluge 
of  Yaou  would  be  rcoeated.  It  was  for  his  merit 
in  draining  the  couniry,  or  drawing  off  the  waters 
of  the  inundation,  that  the  great  Yu  was  so  cele- 
brated. 

To  return  to  the  canal.  Many  persons,  and 
among  the  rest  Dr.  Abel,  have  not  been  disposed 
to  estimate  very  highly  the  labour  and  ingenuity 
displayed  in  the  construction  of  that  artificial  chan- 
nel. He  observes,  "This  famous  monument  of 
industry,  considered  simply  as  a  channel  of  com- 
munication between  different  parts  of  the  empire, 
appears  to  have  been  somewhat  overrated  as  an  ex- 
ample of  the  immense  power  of  human  labour  and 
of  human  art.  In  every  part  of  its  course  it  passes 
through  alluvial  soil,  readily  penetrated  by  the  tools 
of  workmen,  and  is  intersected  by  numerous  streams. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  part  of  it  carried 
through  twenty  miles  of  country  unaided  by  tribu- 
tary rivers.  The  sluices  which  keep  its  necessary 
level  are  of  the  rudest  construction :  buttresses 
formed  of  blocks  of  stone,  with  grooves  fitted  Avith 
thick  planks,  are  the  only  locks  of  the  Imperial 
canal.  It  is  neither  carried  through  any  mountain, 
nor  over  any  valley."  Much  of  this  "is  certainly 
true,  and  confirmed  by  the  observation  of  Du  Halde, 
that  "  m  all  that  space  there  were  neither  hills, 
quarries,  nor  rocks  which  gave  the  workmen  any 
trouble  either  to  level  or  penetrate."  But  if  the 
canal  is  admitted  to  be  a  work  of  high  national  util- 
ity in  more  hghts  than  one,  the  sfmplicity  of  the 
means  by  Mdiich  the  end  Avas  attained  can  scarcely 
be  considered  to  derogate  from  its  merit :  it  would 
seem,  on  the  contrary,  to  be  a  proof  of  the  sagacity 
Vvith  Avhich  the  plan  was  formed. 

The  follovvmig  account  of  the  process  of  crossing 

Vol.  I.— M 


134  THE    CHINESE. 

the  Yellow  river,  at  the  point  where  it  is  inter- 
sected by  the  canal,  is  given  from  two  unpubUshed 
journals  of  the  last  embassy.  "  On  our  left  (pro- 
ceeding south)  was  a  stream  called  the  '  New  Salt 
river,'  which,  like  the  canal,  opened  into  the  Yellow 
river;  and  on  our  right  we  had  for  several  days, 
very  close  to  us,  the  Yellow  river  itself,  which  just 
before  this  point  of  junction  with  the  canal  suddenly 
turns  northeastward,  after  having  run  in  a  south- 
easterly direction.  When  we  had  been  a  short 
time  at  anchor,  during  which  interval  some  of  the 
chief  mandarins  visited  .the  ambassador,  we  all  got 
under  weigh,  and  prepared  to  cross  the  famous 
Hoang-ho.  All  the  boats,  on  entering  the  river, 
struck  right  across  the  stream  without  observing 
any  order,  and  gained  the  opposite  bank  in  less  than 
an  hour.  The  weather  being  fine  and  moderate, 
and  the  water  perfectly  smooth,  our  boatmen  were 
not  so  particular  in  the  observance  of  their  cere- 
monies and  libations  on  the  passage  of  the  river  as 
those  of  the  last  embassy  ;  but  every  boat,  I  believe, 
burnt  a  few  pieces  of  gilt  paper,  and  let  off  a  volley 
of  crackers  in  honour  of  the  occasion.  The  breadth 
of  the  river  in  this  part  was  about  three  quarters  of 
a  mile,  the  direction  of  the  stream  northeast  by 
east,  with  a  current  of  three  or  four  miles  per  hour, 
but  the  water  not  i:  uch  more  muddy  or  yellow  at 
this  point  than  it  has  been  observed  in  the  Pei-ho 
and  elsewhere. 

"  The  stream  was  certainly  violent,  and  carried  us 
down  a  considerable  way  before  we  could  reach 
the  opposite  bank,  which  was  lined  with  a  great 
number  of  boats,  of  various  shapes  and  dimensions, 
some  of  them  being  constructed  exactly  in  the  form 
of  oblong  boxes.  Many  of  these  were  stationary, 
and  laden  with  the  straw  or  stalk  of  the  holcus  sor- 
ghum, and  with  coarse  reeds,  ready  to  be  transported 
to  different  parts  of  the  river  and  canal  for  the  re- 
pair of   the   banlis.     This    assemblage   of   boats, 


CROSSING  THE  YELLOW  RIVER.  135 

though  the  greatest  we  have  yet  noticed  in  this  part 
of  China,  bore  no  comparison  to  what  may  be  daily 
seen  in  the  river  of  Canton.  When  the  current  had 
carried  us  down  some  distance  to  the  eastward,  we 
had  a  mile  or  two  to  reascend  the  river,  before  we 
came  to  the  opening  througli  which  we  were  to  pur- 
sue our  route  to  the  south ;  and  the  passage  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  bank,  to  which  we  kept  on  account 
of  the  current,  was  so  obstructed  with  boats,  that 
this  was  not  effected  under  four  hours  from  our  first 
getting  under  weigh.  The  worst  part  was  now  to 
come  in  passing  through  a  sluice,  on  the  hither  side 
of  which  the  water,  which  had  been  confined  in  its 
passage  through  the  abutments,  raged  with  such 
fury  as  to  suck  down  large  floating  substances  in  its 
eddies.  This  sluice  upon  a  large  scale  was  near 
one  hundred  yards  across,  and  through  it  the  waters 
rushed  into  the  river  at  a  rate  of  not  less  than 
seven  or  eight  miles  an  hour.  The  projecting  banks 
at  the  sides  were  not  constructed  of  stone-work, 
but  entirely  of  the  straw  or  reeds  already  mentioned, 
with  earth  intermixed,  and  strongly  bound  with 
cordage. 

"Through  this  opening  or  sluice,  and  in  close 
contact  M'ith  the  bank  on  our  left,  our  boats  were 
successively  dragged  forward  by  ropes  communi- 
cating with  several  large  windlasses,  which  were 
worked  upon  the  bank ;  by  these  means  the  object 
was  slowly  accompUshed,  without  the  least  damage 
or  accident.  After  thus  effecting  a  passage  through 
the  sluice,  we  found  ourselves  nearly  in  still  water ; 
not  yet,  however,  in  the  southern  division  of  the 
great  canal,  as  we  had  expected,  but  in  the  main 
stream  of  another  large  river,  hardly  inferior  in 
breadth  to  that  which  we  had  quitted.  We  were 
told  it  communicated  at  no  great  distance  with  the 
great  lake  Hoong-tse  Hoo,  to  the  right  of  our 
course.  The  stream  by  which  this  lake  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Yellow  river  is  marked  in  all  the 


136  THE    CHINESE. 

maps  of  China,  but  represented  as  totally  distinct 
and  unconnected  with  the  grand  canal.  It  seems 
evident,  therefore,  that  the  course  of  the  naviga- 
tion has  been  latterly  altered  here,  either  from  the 
overflowing  of  the  Yellow  river,  or  some  other 
cause.  That  a  change  has  taken  place  seems  indi- 
cated by  the  name  '  Ncav  Salt  river,'  on  the  other 
side  of  the  main  stream  of  the  Hoang-ho. 

"  Entered  the  southern  division  of  the  grand 
canal.  A  great  deal  of  labour  and  contrivance  has 
been  employed  here  in  constructing  the  embank- 
ments and  regulating  the  course  of  the  waters.  In 
the  first  place,  two  or  three  artificial  bays  or  basins 
have  been  hollowed  out  in  the  bank  of  the  river, 
where  the  boats  proceeding  to  the  southward  as- 
seml)le  in  security  and  wait  their  turn  to  pass. 
There  are  then  two  other  narrov/  passes,  or  imper- 
fect sluices,  subsequent  to  the  first  opening  that 
leads  from  the  river  to  the  canal,  haying  also  broad 
basins  between  them,  and  embankments  constructed 
as  before,  with  the  straw  or  reeds  confined  with 
cordage. .  The  object  of  this  repetition  of  sluices, 
with  the  basins  between,  seems  in  some  degree 
similar  to  that  of  the  locks  on  our  ov/n  canals." 

The  important  figure  which  the  great  wall  makes 
in  the  maps  of  China  entitles  this  vast  artificial  bar- 
rier to  be  considered  in  a  geographical  point  of 
view.  We  have  already  stated  tliat  it  w;ls  built  by 
the  first  universal  monarch  of  China,  about  200 
years  before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  or  rather  more  than  2000  years  from  this  time. 
It  bounds  the  whole  north  of  China,  along  the  fron- 
tiers of  three  provinces,  extending  from  the  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Pechele,  3p  east  of  Peking,  to  Syning, 
15°  west  of  that  capital.  The  en;iperors  of  the 
Ming  dynasty  built  an  additional  inner  Avail,  near  to 
Peking  on  the  west,  which  may  be  perceived  on 
the  map,  enclosing  a  portion  of  the  province  between 
itself  and  the  old  wall.    From  the  eastern  extremity 


^_ 


tni:";!p:T;i3r.;irjiwiiiii'E31Tl-("\       ^     i  m"x:m 


A 


GREAT  WALL.  139 

of  the  great,  wall  there  is  an  extensive  stockade  of 
wooden  piles  enclosing  the  country  of  Mougden, 
and  this  has,  in  some  European  maps,  been  erro- 
neously represented  as  a  continuation  of  the  solid 
barrier. 

The  gentlemen  of  Lord  Macartney's  embassy  had 
the  good  fortune  to  pass  into  Tartary  by  one  of  the 
most  entire  portions  of  the  wail,  and  a  very  partic- 
ular examination  of  the  structure  was  made  by  Cap- 
tain Parish.  On  the  first  distant  approach,  it  is  de- 
scribed as  resembling  a  prominent  vein  or  ridge  of 
quartz,  standing  out  from  mountains  of  gneiss  or 
granite.  The  continuance  of  this  line  over  the 
mountain-tops  arrested  the  attention,  and  the  form 
of  a  wall  with  battlements  was  soon  distinctly  dis- 
cerned. It  was  carried  over  the  ridges  of  the 
highest  hills,  descended  into  the  deepest  valleys, 
crossed  upon  arches  over  rivers,  and  was  doubled 
in  important  passes,  being,  moreover,  supplied  with 
massy  towers  or  bastions  at  distances  of  about  one 
hundred  yards.  One  of  the  most  elevated  ridges 
crossed  by  the  wall  w^as  5000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  It  far  surpasses,  in  short,  the  sum  total 
of  all  other  works  of  the  kind,  and  proved  a  useful 
barrier  until  the  power  of  Zenghis  Khan  overthrew 
the  empire  of  the  Chinese. 

The  body  of  the  wall*  consists  of  an  earthen 
mound,  retained  on  each  side  by  walls  of  masonry 
and  brick,  and  terraced  by  a  platform  of  square 
bricks.  The  total  height,  including  a  parapet  of 
five  feet,  is  twenty  feet,  on  a  basis  of  stone  project- 
ing two  feet  under  the  brick-work,  and  varying  in 
height  from  two  feet  to  more,  according  to  the 
level  of  the  ground.  The  thickness  of  the  wall  at 
the  base  is  twenty-five  feet,  diminishing  to  fifteen 
at  the  platform.  The  towers  are  forty  I'eet  square 
at  the  base,  diminishing  to  thirty  at  the  top,  and 

*  See  plan,  section,  and  elevation,  fi-om  folio  plates  to  Embassy. 


140  THE  CHINESE. 

about  thirty-seven  feet  in  total  height.  At  particu- 
lar spots,  however,  the  tower  was  of  two  stories, 
and  forty-eight  feet  high.  The  bricks  are,  as  usual 
in  China,  of  a  bluish  colour,  about  fifteen  inches 
long,  half  that  in  width,  and  nearly  four  inches 
thick ;  probably  the  whole,  half,  and  quarter  of  the 
Chinese  Che,  or  covid.  The  blue  colour  of  the 
bricks  led  to  a  doubt  of  their  having  been  burnt ; 
but  some  ancient  kilns  were  observed  near  the  wall, 
and,  since  then,  the  actual  experiment  of  Dr.  Abel 
in  1816  has  proved  that  the  brick-clay  of  the  Chi- 
nese, being  red  at  first,  burns  blue.  The  thinness 
of  the  parapet  of  the  wall,  about  eighteen  inches, 
justifies  the  conclusion  that  it  was  not  intended  to 
resist  cannon :  indeed,  the  Chinese  themselves  claim 
no  such  antiquity  for  the  invention  of  fire-arms. 
The  above  description  confirms  upon  the  whole  that 
of  Gerbillon,  about  a  century  before.  "  It  is  gen- 
erally," says  he,  "  no  more  than  eighteen,  twenty, 
or  twenty-five  geometrical  feet  high,  but  the  towers 
are  seldom  less  than  forty." 

The  same  missionary,  however,  informs  us,  that 
beyond  the  Yellow  river  to  its  western  extremity, 
or  for  full  one  half  of  its  total  length,  the  wall  is 
chiefly  a  mound  of  earth  or  gravel,,  about  fifteen 
feet  in  height,  with  only  occasional  towers  of  brick. 
Marco  Polo's  silence  concerning  it  may  therefore 
be  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that,  having 
seen  only  this  imperfect  portion,  he  did  not  deem  it 
an  object  of  sufficient  curiosity  to  deserve  partic- 
ular notice ;  without  the  necessity  of  imagining  that 
he  entered  China  from  the  westward,  to  the  south 
of  the  great  barrier. 

As  a  minute  geographical  description  of  each 
province  of  the  empire  would  be  out  of  place  in 
this  work,  we  will  notice  generally  the  points  most 
deserving  of  attention  in  all,  commencing  with  those 
which  lay  in  the  route  of  the  British  embassies.  The 
flat,  sandy,  and  steril  province  in  which  Peking  is 


PROVINCES.  141 

situated,  ofTers  little  wortliy  of  notice.  The  vast 
plain  which  surrounds  the  capital  is  entirely  devoid 
of  trees,  but  wood  is  procured  from  that  long  hilly 
promontory  of  Tartary  which  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Gulf  of  Leaoutung,  and  was  named 
by  Sir  Murray  ^Maxwell  the  "  regent's  sword."  Th6 
most  considerable  town,  next  to  Peking,  is  Tien- 
tsin, tliough  it  does  not  rank  as  a  city  :  it  forms  the 
irivium,  or  point  of  junction  between  the  canal,  the 
capital,  and  the  sea.  Here  are  seen  the  immense 
piles  or  hills  of  salt  described  by  Mr.  Barrow,  this 
being  the  depot  for  the  salt  provided  for  the  enor- 
mous consumption  of  Peking,  and  manufactured 
along  tlie  marshy  borders  of  the  sea.  On  entering 
the  adjoining  province  of  Shantung  to  the  south,  the 
attention  is  soon  drawn  to  the  commencement  of 
the  canal;  and  on  the  lakes,  or  rather  extensive 
swamps  through  which  it  is  carried,  are  seen  the 
fishing  corvorants,  birds  which  will  be  more  partic- 
ularly described  hereafter,  exercising  their  profes- 
sion for  their  masters  in  numerous  boats.  The 
surface  in  the  north  of  this  province  and  in  Pechele 
is  so  flat  and  low,  that  the  tide,  which  rises  only 
nine  or  ten  feet  in  the  adjoining  gulf,  flows  upwards 
of  one  hundred  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho. 
The  country,  therefore,  consisting  entirely  of  an 
argillaceous  sand  abounding  in  mica,  is  frequently 
laid  under  water,  the  general  level  not  being  more 
than  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  river  at  high 
tide.  In  this  circumstance,  joined  to  the  vicinity 
of  that  constant  source  of  inundations,  the  Yellow 
river,  we  may  perceive,  perhaps,  an  explanation  of 
the  great  inundation  or  deluge,  which  the  celebrated 
Yu  is  said  to  have  carried  off  in  the  course  of  eight 
years  by  constructing  "nine  channels." 

On  entering  Keangnan,  which  is  divided  into  the 
subordinate  provinces  of  Keangsoo  and  Ganhoey, 
the  country  soon  improves,  and  inequaUty  of  the 
surface  renders  the  locks,  or  floodgates,  very  fre- 


142  THE  CHINESE. 

quent  on  the  canal.  This  is  certainly  the  richest 
province  of  China.  It  is  famous  for  its  silks  and 
japanned  goods,  made  principally  at  Soo-chow. 
Nanking,  the  ancient  capital,  became  permanently 
abandoned  for  Peking  by  Yoonglo,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  area  of  the  ancient  walls,  only  a 
corner  of  which  is  occupied  by  the  present  city, 
measures  seventeen  miles  in  circumference,  being 
rather  more  than  the  circuit  of  Peking.  The  reign- 
ing Tartar  dynasty  find  it  their  interest  to  retain  the 
modern  capital,  from  its  vicinity  to  Mougden,  their 
birthplace,  but  the  ancient  one  is  greatly  more  cen- 
trical, with  a  finer  climate,  and  altogether  better 
calculated  to  promote  the  prosperity  of  the  empire. 
Shanghae,  a  seaport  near  the  mouth  of  the  Keang, 
was  visited  by  Mr.  Gutzlaff  in  1831,  and  described 
by  him  as  the  most  considerable  trading  place  of 
any  on  the  coast :  it  is,  in  fact,  close  to  Soo-chow 
and  Hangchow.  On  the  Keang,  not  far  from  the 
mouth,  is  that  remarkably  beautiful  little  island  call- 
ed the  "  Golden  isle,"  surmounted  by  numerous 
temples,  inhabited  by  the  votaries  of  Buddha,  or  Fo, 
and  very  correctly  described  so  many  centuries 
since  by  Marco  Polo.  At  no  great  distance  from 
this  are  the  gardens  of  Kien-loong,  erected  for  him 
when  he  visited  his  southern  provinces,  and  viewed 
by  us  in  the  embassy  of  181G  :  they  were  laid  out 
in  the  usual  style  of  Chinese  gardening,  with  arti- 
ficial rocks  and  ruins,  and  wooden  bridges  over  a 
piece  of  water.  The  embassy  saw  the  room  in 
which  the  emperor  dined,  and  a  stone  tablet,  having 
engraven  on  it  some  sentences  composed  by  him- 
self. The  whole,  however,  was  in  a  sad  state  of 
dilapidation  and  ruin,  like  almost  every  thing  else 
of  the  kind  that  we  see  in  the  country. 

In  the  district  of  Hoey-chow-foo,  the  most  south- 
em  city  of  the  province,  is  grown  the  best  green 
tea.  The  soil  in  which  it  is  reared  is  a  decompo- 
sition of  granite,  abounding  in  feldspar,  as  is  proved 


PROVINCES.  143 

by  its  being  used  for  porcelain.  Thus  the  same 
soil  produces  the  tea,  and  the  cups  from  which  it  is 
drunk.  In  this  province,  too,  is  Foong-yang-foo, 
the  birthplace  of  the  founder  of  the  Ming  dynasty, 
who  served,  at  first,  as  a  menial  in  a  monastery 
of  bonzes.  He  then  joined  a  body  of  insurgents 
against  the  Mongol  dynasty,  and  became  their  chief. 
From  beating  the  Tartars  in  every  battle,  and  at 
length  chasing  them  from  the  country,  he  was  styled 
Hoong-woo,  "  the  great  warrior." 

The  adjoining  province  of  Keang-sy  is,  perhaps, 
in  point  of  natural  scenery  and  climate,  the  most 
delightful  part  of  China.  The  Poyang  lake,  in  size 
approaching  the  character  of  an  inland  sea,  is  bor- 
dered on  its  west  side  by  strikingly  beautiful  moun- 
tain scenery.  It  was  only  hereabout  that  the  two 
British  embassies  varied  in  their  respective  routes. 
That  of  Lord  Amherst  proceeded  along  the  Yang- 
tse-keang  after  leaving  the  canal,  until  it  reached 
the  lake  ;  while  Lord  Macartney  crossed  the  Keang 
below  Nanking,  visited  Soochow  and  Hang-chow, 
and,  proceeding  south  and  west,  approached  the 
lake  at  its  southern  extremity.  The  following  ac- 
count of  the  west  side  of  the  Poyang  is  from  a 
MS.  journal: — "Arrived  early  in  the  day  at  Nan- 
kang-foo.  A  long  mole  was  built  on  the  southeast 
side  of  the  town,  making  a  small  harbour  for  boats 
to  lie  in,  secure  from  the  tempestuous  waters  of  the 
lake  in  bad  weather.  While  we  were  here,  suffi- 
cient swell  existed  to  make  it  resemble  an  arm  of 
the  sea,  and  the  shore  was  covered  with  shingles  in 
the  manner  of  a  sea-beach."  A  description  of  the 
mountains  in  the  neighbourhood  will  appear  in 
another  place,  as  well  as  of  King-fe-ching,  the  most 
noted  manufactory  for  porcelain,  to  the  eastward  of 
the  Poyang. 

From  Keang-sy  to  the  adjoining  province  of 
Kuang-tung,  or  Canton,  the  passage  is  cut  through 
vhe  precipitous  ridge  of  mountains  which  separates 


144  THE    CHINESE. 

them.  It  was  formed  by  an  individual  during  the 
dynasty  of  Tang,  more  than  a  thousand  years  since ; 
and  an  arched  gateway  in  the  centre,  of  later  con- 
struction, marks  the  boundary  between  the  two 
provinces.  The  name  of  the  pass,  Meiling,  is  deri- 
ved from  the  flower  of  a  species  of  primus  which 
grows  wild  in  profusion  near  the  summit.  After 
reaching  the  foot  of  the  steep  acclivity  on  the  north 
side,  the  embassy  were  obhged  to  dismount,  from 
their  horses,  or  quit  their  chairs,  in  order  to  walk  up. 
On  reaching  the  summit,  where  the  rock  is  cut  to 
the  depth  of  above  twenty  feet,  the  view  on  the  Can- 
ton side  breaks  upon  the  eye  in  full  grandeur,  con- 
sisting of  ranges  of  wild  mountains,  well  wooded. 
The  rocks  at  the  pass  have  been  erroneously  stated 
to  consist  of  gneiss  and  quartz  :  they  are,  in  fact, 
limestone,  in  common  with  the  whole  north  of  Can- 
ton province,  and  supply  the  gray  marble  which  is 
so  plentifully  brought  down  the  river.  Immense 
square  blocks  of  the  stone  which  compose  the 
mountain  are  piled  up  in  pyramidal  shapes  on  each 
side  of  the  road  down  the  southern  declivity ;  the 
separate  masses,  however,  preserving  the  remains 
of  a  horizontal  stratification. 

The  only  two  provinces  to  the  east,  or  left  of  the 
route  pursued  by  Lord  Amherst's  mission,  are  Che- 
keang  and  Fokien,  both  of  them  bordering  the  sea. 
The  first  of  these  competes  with  Keang-n^n  in  the 
production  of  silk,  and  the  couiitry  is  thickly  plant- 
ed with  young  mulberry-trees,  which  are  constant- 
ly renewed,  as  the  most  certain  way  of  improving 
the  quality  of  the  silk  Avhich  is  spun  by  the  worms. 
Tlie  principal  city  of  the  province  is  the  celebrated 
Hang-chow,  at  the  end  of  an  estuary  of  the  sea, 
where  the  tide,  according  to  Barrow,  rises  six  or 
seven  feet.  Close  to  this  opulent  to^.vn,  on  the 
west,  is  the  famous  lake  Sy-hoo,  about  six  miles  in 
circumference,  the  water  quite  limpid,  and  over- 
spread with  the  nelumbium.     This  extensive  sheet 


PROVINCES.  145 

of  water  is  covered  with  barges,  which  appear  to 
be  the  perpetual  abodes  of  gayety  and  dissipation. 
On  the  coast,  in  the  30th  parallel  of  latitude,  is  the 
well-known  port  of  Ningpo,  the  former  seat  of  Eu- 
ropean trade.  The  entrance  is  said  to  be  difficult, 
as  there  are  scarcely  twenty  feet  of  water  on  the 
bar  at  the  highest  tides.  Fifty  or  sixty  miles  from 
it,  among  the  islands  on  the  coast,  is  Chowsan  or 
Chusan,  with  a  good  harbour,  but  inconvenient  for 
trade  in  comparison  with  Ningpo  itself. 

The  contiguous  province  of  Fokien  preserved  its 
independence  against  the  Manchow  Tartars  longer 
than  any  portion  of  the  empire,  being  supported  by 
the  squadron  of  the  famous  pirate  (as  he  is  some- 
times called,  though  he  deserves  a  better  name) 
whose  son  expelled  the  Dutch  from  the  adjoining 
island  Formosa,  when  the  Tartars  had  dispossessed 
him  of  the  main.  The  people  of  Fokien  retain  an 
hereditary  aptitude  for  the  sea,  and  chiefly  supply 
the  emperor's  war-junks  with  both  sailors  and  com- 
manders. A  large  proportion,  too,  of  the  trading- 
junks  that  proceed  to  sea  pertain  to  Fokien.  Two 
circumstances  probably  tend  to  maintain  the  mari- 
time propensities  of  the  inhabitants : — first,  this 
province  is  so  far  removed  from  the  grand  canal  as 
to  afford  fewer  inducements  to  mland  navigation 
and  trade,  always  preferable,  if  practicable,  to  a  Chi- 
nese ;  secondly,  the  proximity  of  the  opposite  coast 
of  Formosa  keeps  up  a  constant  intercourse  by  sea. 
The  language  or  dialect  of  Fokien  is  so  peculiar  as 
hardly  to  be  intelligible  elsewhere,  and  this  may 
chiefly  be  attributed  to  its  long  independence  of  the 
rest  of  the  empire.  Ch  is  always  pronounced  T, 
and  hence  the  difference  between  cha  and  tea  for 
the  great  staple  production  of  China :  the  first  name 
fortea  being  adopted  by  the  Portuguese  from  Macao, 
and  the  second  by  the  Enghsh  from  Amoy.  This 
port,  the  name  of  which  is  a  corruption  of  the  na- 
tive word  Heamun,  is  well  known  to  have  been 

Vol.  I.— N 


146  THE  CHINESE. 

formerly  the  seat  of  the  English  trade,  being  placed 
on  an  island  near  the  coast  in  latitude  24>2  2y.  Fo- 
kien  is  the  great  country  of  the  black  teas,  and 
Bohea  is  a  corruption  of  Vu-ee  Shan,  the  hills 
where  they  are  principally  grown. 

We  have  now  taken  a  cursory  view  of  the  finest 
and  most  opulent  parts  of  the  empire.  All  the  re- 
mainder are  inland  provinces,  less  known  to  Euro- 
peans, and  probably  much  less  suited  to  the  pur- 
poses of  commerce.  Of  the.se,  one  of  the  largest 
is  Hoo-kuang,  divided  by  the  vast  lake  Tongting 
Hoo,*  with  its  tributaries,  into  two  subordinate 
provinces,  Hoo-pe,  and  Hoo-nan;  that  is,  "  north 
and  south  of  the  lake  ,•"  the  last  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  Ho-nan,  a  province  to  the  north.  Immediate- 
ly adjoining,  to  the  southwest,  is  the  province  of 
Kuang-sy,  under  the  same  viceroyalty  with  Canton, 
but  greatly  inferior  in  wealth.  North  of  Kuang-sy 
lies  Kuei-chow,  a  small  mountainous  province,  of 
which  the  south  boundary  has  always  been  inde- 
pendent. It  is  peopled  by  a  race  of  mountaineers 
called  Meaou-tse,  who  thus  defy  the  Chinese  in  the 
midst  of  their  empire.  They  gave  the  government 
much  trouble  in  1832,  and  are  said  to  have  been 
"  soothed"  rather  than  "  controlled,"  to  use  favour- 
ite Chinese  expressions. 

The  fact  that  an  independent  race  of  people  exists 
in  the  heart  of  a  country  so  jealous  of  its  dominion 
as  China,  is  certainly  a  singular  one.  Tlie  princi- 
pal seats  of  these  mountaineers  are  between  the 
provinces  of  Kuei-chow  and  Kudng-sy,  though  some 
of  them  exist  in  other  parts  of  the  same  ridge,  and 
in  the  Chinese  maps  their  borders  or  limits  are 
marked  off  hke  those  of  a  foreign  country,  and  the 
space  left  vacant.     L'Amiot  has  given  an  account 

*  The  English  translation  of  Du  Halde,  we  observe,  states 
that  the  lake  is  very  venomoxis,  being  thus  absurdly  rendered 
firom  the  original,  poistcAnexue  (abounding  with  fish). 


INDEPENDENT    MOUNTAINEERS.  147 

of  Kien-loong's  expeditions  against  them ;  but,  as 
his  narrative  is  taken  from  the  official  papers  sent 
to  the  emperor,  which  are  in  general  not  more  cor- 
rect or  veracious  than  Napoleon's  bulletins,  it  must 
be  received  with  some  allowances.  According  to 
him,  the  viceroy  of  a  neighbouring  province  had 
sent  an  army  against  the  Meaou-tse,  who  enticed 
the  Chinese  into  their  mountains,  and  entirely  cut 
them  off  with  their  general.  To  revenge  this,  Kien- 
loong  despatched  a  leader  named  Akuei  at  the  head 
of  his  best  Tartar  troops  to  subdue  them.  This 
person  is  said  to  have  entered  their  country,  and, 
in  spite  of  all  opposition,  to  have  taken  their  king 
prisoner,  and  nearly  exterminated  the  race.  Still, 
however,  they  remain  as  independent  as  ever,  and 
the  Chinese  are  contented  to  keep  them  within 
their  own  limits  by  small  fortresses  erected  on  the 
borders. 

The  mountainous  ridges  occupied  by  this  people 
extend  full  six  degrees,  or  about  360  geographical 
miles,  from  west  to  east,  comprising  the  southern 
borders  of  Kueichow,  with  the  northern  of  Kuang- 
sy,  and  the  northwest  limits  of  the  Canton  province  ; 
but  the  Chinese  contrive  to  weaken  their  force  by 
separating  their  different  tribes.  The  men  do  not 
shave  their  hair  like  the  Tartars  and  Chinese,  but 
wear  it  tied  up,  in  the  ancient  fashion  of  the  latter 
people  before  they  were  conquered.  The  Chinese, 
in  affected  contempt,  give  them  the  names  of  Yaou- 
jin  and  Ldng-jm,  dog-men  and  wolf-men.  They 
are  said  to  inhabit  houses  of  one  story  raised  on 
piles,  occupying  the  upper  part,  and  placing  their 
domestic  animals  below.  The  Chinese,  without 
entering  their  mountains,  purchase  the  woods  of 
their  forests  by  agreement,  and  these,  being  thrown 
into  the  rivers  which  intersect  the  hilly  country,  are 
floated  down  into  the  plains.  They  make  their  linen 
from  a  species  of  hemp,  probably  the  material  of 
what  is  called  s^rass-cloth  at  Canton ;  and  likewise 


148  THE  CHINESE. 

manufacture  a  kind  of  carpet  for  their  own  use.  As 
soon  as  the  children  can  walk,  the  Chinese  say  that 
the  soles  of  their  feet  are  seared  with  a  hot  iron,  to 
enable  them  to  tread  on  thorns  and  stones  without 
pain;  but  this  perhaps  deserves  little  more  credit 
than  the  grave  assertion  at  Canton  that  the  people 
have  tails^ — a  piece  of  information  which  would 
have  been  duly  appreciated  by  Lord  Monboddo,  in 
his  speculations  on  the  possible  elongation  of  the 
vertebral  chain  in  the  human  race. 

In  the  month  of  February,  1832,  a  great  rising 
took  place  among  the  Meaou-tse,  extending  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lien-chow,  on  the  northwest  of 
Canton.  The  leader  took  the  name  of  the  "  Golden 
Dragon,"  and  assumed  a  yellow  dress :  this  gave 
great  offence  and  alarm  at  Peking,  and  it  was  ap- 
prehended that  some  of  the  "  Triad  Society,"  whose 
object  is  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchow  Tartars, 
had  got  among  them.  They  made  their  way  into 
the  plains,  and  defeated  several  bodies  of  Chinese 
troops  with  considerable  slaughter,  and  the  loss  of 
their  arms  and  stores.  The  commander-in-chief  of 
a  neighbouring  province  was  among  the  killed. 
The  mountaineers  possessed  themselves  of  several 
towns,  but  issued  notices  to  the  Chinese  people  that 
they  made  war  only  against  the  government.  Of  a 
thousand  men,  sent  from  Canton  to  recruit  the  em- 
peror's forces,  two  hundred  were  ordered  back  again 
as  entirely  useless,  from  the  baneful  effects  of  opium. 

The  Viceroy  of  Canton  (called  by  the  English 
"  Governor  Le")  proceeded  against  the  insurgents, 
and,  though  they  at  first  retired,  it  was  only  to  re- 
turn to  the  amount,  it  is  said,  of  30,000,  who  engaged 
the  Chinese  army,  and  slew  2000  of  them,  with  a 
considerable  number  of  mandarins.  One  officer  of 
rank,  who  understood  their  language  and  customs, 
was  sent  to  treat  with  them ;  but,  on  his  entering 
their  territory,  they  seized  him  and  cut  off  his  head, 
saying  that  the  spirit  of  Chang-ke-urh  (Jehanghir), 


I 


INDEPENDENT  MOUNTAINEERS.  149 

the  Mahometan  prince  who  was  perfidiously  mur- 
dered at  Peking,  had  appeared  and  advised  them  to 
make  no  terms  with  the  faithless.  While  "  Gover- 
nor Le"  was  unsuccessful  in  the  south,  the  Viceroy 
of  Hoonan  attacked  the  insurgents  on  the  north, 
and  retook  one  of  the  towns  of  which  they  had 
possessed  themselves,  killing  a  great  number,  and 
taking  some  of  the  chief  men  prisoners.  At  length, 
two  imperial  commissioners  were  sent  from  Peking, 
and  they  performed  by  policy  much  more  than  had 
been  hkely  to  be  done  by  arms.  Reports  were 
spread  of  the  innumerable  forces  that  were  coming 
to  exterminate  the  mountaineers,  and  they  were  at 
the  same  time  invited  to  come  to  terms.  At  length 
it  was  agreed  that  they  should  confine  themselves  to 
their  hills,  and  that  the  Chinese  should  not  invade 
their  territories ;  and  the  emperor's  troops  were 
withdrawn.  "Governor  Le,"  however,  was,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  ill  success,  deprived  of  his  station 
at  Canton,  and  ordered  to  proceed  to  Peking  to  be 
put  upon  his  trial  and  degraded.  The  Viceroy  of 
Hoonan,  on  the  other  hand,  was  honoured  with  the 
peacock's  feather,  a  distinction  of  a  military  char- 
acter, pendent  from  the  back  of  the  cap,  and  a  mul- 
titude of  rewards  were  conferred  on  others,  signifi- 
cant of  the  important  advantages  which  had  been 
gained  over  the  enemy.  These,  however,  continue 
as  independent  as  ever,  and  must  be  a  source  of 
some  anxiety  to  the  Manchow  dynasty. 

The  province  of  Yun-nan,  the  most  western  part 
of  China,  which  borders  on  the  Burmese  territoiy, 
and  is  not  very  far  from  Umerapura,  the  capital,  is 
extremely  mountainous,  and  abounds  in  metals  and 
other  valuable  minerals.  Gold  is  found  m  the  sands 
of  the  river,  and  the  Keang,  in  this  part  of  its 
course,  is  named  Kin-shd,  or  golden-sa.nded.  There 
is  a  salt-water  well  near,  Yaou-gan-foo.  Tov/ards 
the  northwest  of  this  province,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Thibet  country-,  is  found  the  Yaly  or  cow  of 
N2 


150  THE    CHINESE. 

Thibet,  the  tail-hairs  of  which  are  used  in  various 
manufactures,  particularly  carpets.  The  large  prov- 
ince of  Szechuen,  lying  northeast  of  Yun-nan,  is 
traversed  by  a  portion  of  the  great  Keang.  From 
the  name  of  "snowy  mountains,"  apphed  by  the 
Chinese  to  some  of  those  which  extend  along  the 
northwest  of  this  province,  bordering  on  the  Thibet 
country,  they  must  be  of  considerable  elevation,  and 
from  their  situation  are  probably  higher  than  any  in 
China.  Salt  springs  are  found  here  as  in  Yun-nan, 
towards  the  southwest.  The  province  of  Shensy, 
bordering  on  Thibet,  has  been  enlarged  and  divided 
into  two,  of  which  the  westernmost  is  called  Kan- 
s6.  Both  this  country  and  the  adjoining  province 
of  Shansy,  towards  Peking,  abound  in  symptoms 
of  volcanic  action,  as  the  connexion  of  salt-water 
lakes  and  springs,  with  jets  of  inflammable  gas  and 
hot  wells.  These  may  be  traced  towards  the  south- 
west, through  Szechuen  and  Yun-nan,  to  the  Bur- 
mese country,  where  they  also  occur  in  abundance, 
and  are  seemingly  a  continuation  of  those  volcanic 
traces  which  extend  up  through  the  Malay  penin- 
sula from  Sumatra  and  Java,  both  which  islands 
contain  numerous  volcanoes  in  full  action.  In 
Shensy,  near  the  city  of  Yen-gan-foo,  there  distils 
from  some  rocks  an  inflammable  substance,  which 
the  Chinese  burn  in  lamps,  and  call  She-yew,  or 
stone  oil,  being  probably,  what  its  name  imports,  a 
kind  of  petroleum. 

Although  not  precisely  included  in  our  plan, 
which  is  confined  to  China  proper,  it  may  not  be 
amiss  to  take  some  notice  of  the  countries  immedi- 
ately contiguous.  The  region  of  Manchow  Tartary, 
formerly  the  territory  of  the  Kin,  whence  the  pres- 
ent riilers  of  China  proceeded,  has  been  generally 
described  as  consisting  of  three  provinces.  Moug- 
den,  or  Shing-king,  the  birthplace  of  the  reigning 
family,  commences  just  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  great  wall,  and  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 


TARTAR Y.  161 

the  Gulf  of  Pechele.  Here  it  is  that  the  emperors  are 
buried,  and  their  family  mausoleum  is  established. 
The  country  is  surrounded  on  the  northwest  and 
northeast  by  a  stockade  of  timber,  about  eight  feet 
in  height,  which  has  been  incorrectly  inserted  in 
some  European  maps  as  a  continuation  of  the  great 
wall.  At  Mougden  is  erected  a  sort  of  epitome  of 
the  imperial  government  of  Peking,  with  various 
tribunals  for  the  regulation  of  all  parts  of  Tartary 
immediately  dependant  on  the  emperor,  whose 
subjects  in  this  part  are  called  Bogdois  by  the  Rus- 
sians. To  the  eastward  of  Mougden,  and  bordering 
Corea  on  the  north,  is  the  second  province  of  Man- 
chow  Tartary,  called  Kirin :  it  is  here  that  the  fa- 
mous wild  plant  ginseng,  to  which  the  Chinese 
attribute  wonderful  properties,  is  gathered  as  an 
exclusive  monopoly  of  the  emperor.  Not  long 
since,  however,  the  same  plant  was  brought  to 
Canton  by  the  Americans,  having  been  discovered 
in  their  northern  states,  in  a  climate  and  situation 
very  similar  to  that  of  Eastern  Tartary.  The  mis- 
sionaries, who  constructed  the  map  for  the  emperor, 
were  at  a  loss  to  explain  the  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold  prevailing  in  these  regions ;  "  why  countries 
which  lie  near  the  40th  degree  of  latitude  should 
differ  so  much  from  ours  (in  Europe),  in  respect  to 
the  seasons,  and  the  productions  of  nature,  as  not  to 
bear  comparison  even  with  our  most  northern  prov- 
inces. The  cold  begins  much  sooner  in  these  parts 
than  at  Paris,  notwithstanding  the  latitude  of  that 
city  is  almost  50^."  A  small  English  vessel,  which 
went  up  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechele  in  the  winter  of 
1832,  was  nearly  frozen  up  there ;  and  yet,  during 
the  month  of  August,  in  1816,  we  observed  that  the 
fishermen  on  the  coast  went  stark  naked  on  ac- 
count of  the  excessive  heat,  and  their  skins  were 
burnt  almost  black  by  the  sun.  Nothing  can  prove 
more  strongly  that  the  chmates  of  places  are  not 
influenced  by  their  latitude  merely.     The    third 


152  THE    CHINESE. 

province  of  Manchow  Tartary,  of  which  the  inhab- 
itants are  the  Tagours,  bordering  on  the  Russian 
territory,  is  that  of  Heloonkeang,  or  "  the  river  pf 
the  Black  Dragon,"  otherwise  called  the  Saghalien, 
or  river  Amur. 

The  Western,  or  Mongol  Tartars,  commencing 
from  the  great  wall,  extend  as  a  distinct  race  even 
to  the  borders  of  the  Caspian.  They  are  distin- 
guished by  their  nomadic  habits,  dwelling  in  tents,, 
driving  their  flocks  to  pasture  from  place  to  place, 
and  accoutred  with  the  bow  for  sport  or  war.  Of 
those  dependant  on  China,  but  governed  through 
the  medium  of  their  own  princes,  or  khans,  the 
most  considerable  are  the  Kalkas,  lying  to  the  north 
of  the  Shamo,  or  sandy  desert  called  Gobi.*  They 
are  all  Buddhists,  and  the  wandering  priests  of  that 
persuasion  are  styled  shamans,  in  Chinese  v/ritten 
sha-mun.  The  Ortous  are  confined  between  a  bend 
of  the  Yellow  river  and  the  great  wall,  which  in  this 
part  is  a  mere  earthen  mound,  about  fifteen  feet 
high.  The  principal  seat  of  Chinese  rule  in  Mon- 
gol Tartary  is  at  Ee-ly,  a  place  to  which  criminals 
from  China  (sometimes  Hong  merchants  from  Can- 
ton) are  occasionally  exiled :  they  are  generally 
condemned  to  military  service,  and  in  some  cases 
become  slaves  to  Tartars.  It  is  likely,  however, 
that  money  serves  to  mitigate  their  treatment,  for 
a  former  linguist  of  Canton,  banished  thither  for 
conveying  presents  to  Peking  from  the  chief  of  the 
English  factory  to  a  minister  of  state,  returned  after 
a  banishment  of  fifteen  years,  in  very  good  case, 
and  by  no  means  dissatisfied  with  his  residence. 

Gerbillon,  in  the  account  of  his  expedition  in  1688, 
gives  a  miserable  history  of  the  Mongol  and  Kalka 
Tartars.     Entirely  devoted  to  their  lamas,  whom 

*  In  the  Shamo  desert,  no  water  i8  to  be  had  except  in  pits 
dug  in  the  sand,  and  that  of  the  worst  quality.  The  surface  is 
strewed  with  the  bodies  of  animals,  victims  to  thirst. 


TARTARY.  153 

even  the  Emperor  of  China  honours,  on  account  of 
their  influence  over  the  various  tribes,  the  Mongols 
hve  in-  tents  of  coarse  felt,  eat  nothing  but  flesh 
half  ravi^,  and  exchange  their  sheep  and  cattle  for  a 
few  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  having  no  value  for 
money.  Timkowski  states  that  the  usual  medium 
of  exchange  is  tea,  made  up  into  the  shape  of  bricks. 
As  late  as  the  reign  of  Kang-hy,  the  chief  of  the 
Kalka  Tartars  styled  himself  emperor ;  but,  becom- 
ing tributary  to  China,  in  return  for  protection 
against  the  Eleuths,  he  submitted  to  the  rank  of 
wang,  or  king.  At  the  time,  however,  when  Ger- 
billon  visited  Tartary,  the  brother  of  the  Kalka 
Khan  told  K4ng-hy's  envoys  that  he  expected  to  be 
treated  as  the  son  of  an  emperor,  and  was  so  treat- 
ed accordingly.  The  most  westerly  of  the  Mongol 
Tartars  are  the  Calmucs,  or  Eleuths,  stretching  to- 
wards the  Caspian.  They  waged  war  with  Kang-hy 
in  1696,  but  were  defeated ;  and  these  victories  of 
the  emperor's  army  were,  as  we  have  before  stated, 
painted  by  the  Jesuits,  and  engraved  in  France. 

On  the  western  side  of  China,  bordering  princi- 
pally on  Szehuen  province,  are  the  Sy-f^n,  or  Too- 
fan,  who,  according  to  the  Chinese,  call  their  coun- 
try Too-pe-te  (Thibet),  and,  like  the  other  Tartar 
races,  are  worshippers  of  Buddha,  or  Fo,  and  under 
the  dominion  of  Lama  priests.  Their  inaccessible 
mountainous  retreats  make  them  pretty  independent 
of  Chinese  control,  though  they  are  counted  among 
the  subjects  of  the  emperor.  They  appear  to  have 
made  some  show  in  Chinese  history  previous  to 
the  dynasty  of  Yuen,  or  that  of  the  Mongol  Tartars, 
and  their  princes  even  compelled  the  sovereigns  of 
China  to  yield  them  their  daughters  in  marriage ; 
but  the  arms  of  Zenghis  Khan  involved  them  in  the 
common  subjugation,  and  they  have  since  remained 
very  quiet  within  their  hilly  country,  contented 
,  with  the  exercise  of  their  superstitions.  There  is 
a  Chinese  resident  at  Lassa,  the  capital  of  Thibet, 


154  THE    CHINESE. 

the  high  road  to  which  from  Pekmg  lies  through 
Sy-ning,  in  K^n-so  province. 

To  the  south,  bordering  on  the  western  part  of 
Yunnan  province,  are  the  Lolos,  the  original  inhabi- 
tants of  a  portion  of  Yunnan,  and  very  similar  in  hab- 
its, religious  observances,  and  language,  to  the  Bur- 
mese, or  people  of  Ava.  The  Chinese  exercise  but  a 
doubtful  control  over  them  ;  for,  though  the  emperor 
is  said  to  confer  titles  on  their  principal  rulers,  tbey 
appear  to  be  entirely  subject  to  their  native  cluefs  in 
all  matters  of  consequence.  On  the  outskirts  of  the 
empire  towards  the  west  are  a  number  of  towns  or 
stations  called  Too-sse,  or  ".native  jurisdictions," 
where  the  aborigines  are  more  or  less  independent, 
and  where  there  is,  in  fact,  a  kind  of  divided  author- 
ity, each  party  being  immediately  subject  to  its  own 
chiefs.     This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Lolos. 

The  two  large  islands  of  Formosa  and  Haen^n 
being  external  to  the  main  body  of  the  empire,  and 
therefore  exposed  to  the  power  of  any  maritime 
and  commercial  nation  that  might  wish  to  try  the 
experiment  of  an  insular  settlement  near  the  coast 
of  China,  are  both  of  them  deserving  of  some  atten- 
tion. Of  these  two,  Formosa  is  by  far  the  most  fa- 
voured and  the  most  desirable  region.  It  lies  prin- 
cipally between  the  25th  and  22d  parallels  of  north 
latitude,  just  opposite  the  coast  of  Fokien,  from 
which  it  is  distant,  at  the  nearest  point,  little  more 
than  twenty  leagues.  The  length  is  nearly  two 
hundred  geographical  miles,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  about  fifty ;  and  the  climate,  as  might  be  expected 
from  an  insular  situation  in  that  latitude,  very  fa- 
vourable. The  island  is  divided  longitudinally  by  a 
ridge  of  high  mountains ;  and  the  western  portion, 
having  been  colonized  by  the  Chinese  since  the 
Manchow  Tartar  conquest,  is  now  held  by  them  as 
a  portion  of  the  opposite  province  of  Fokien,  The 
side  that  hes  eastward  of  the  "liills  is  still  inhabited 
by  the  aborigines,  who  have  always  been  described 


FORMOSA   AND    HAENAN.  155 

as  a  primitive  and  savage  race,  bearing  some  com- 
mon resemblance  to  the  Malays  and  to  the  inliabi- 
tants  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  ;  since  they  black- 
en their  teeth  like  the  former,  and  tattoo  their  skin.s, 
as  a  distinctive  mark  of  rank,  after  the  manner  of 
the  latter.  The  expulsion  of  the  Dutch  by  the  Ciii- 
nese,  nearly  two  hundred  years  since,  from  their 
settlement  on  the  west  coast  of  Formosa,  has  al- 
ready been  described  in  the  first  chapter.  The  isl- 
and continued  for  some  years  to  be  held  by  the 
Chinese,  independently  of  the  Tartar  conquerors  of 
the  empire  ;  but  in  1683  it  submitted  to  the  Man- 
chow  emperor,  Kang-hy,  and  became  annexed  to 
the  empire  as  a  part  of  the  province  of  Fokien.  The 
position  of  Formosa,  opposite  to  the  central  coasts 
of  China,  would  render  it  a  most  advantageous  sit- 
uation for  the  promotion  of  European  trade. 

Haenan  is  rather  smaller  than  Formosa,  its  great- 
est length  being  under  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  about  a  degree.  It  is 
divided  from  the  province  of  Ku^ng-tung  (to  which 
it  is  subject)  by  a  very  narrow,  as  well  as  shallow 
strait,  on  the  shore  of  which  the  principal  city  of 
the  island,  Keung-chow-foo,  is  situated.  The'  cli- 
mate of  the  island,  from  its  situation  south  of  the 
20th  parallel  of  latitude,  is  naturally  hot ,  but  the 
worst  feature  of  the  country  consists  in  the  dread- 
ful hurricanes  by  which  it  is  devastated  during  the 
southerly  monsoon,  and  from  which  Formosa  seems 
to  be  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  free.  During  the 
months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  the  in- 
terior of  Haenan,  as  well  as  its  coasts,  is  peculiarly 
liable  to  thQ  destructive  typhoons  for  which  the 
Chinese  Sea  is  so  notorious,  and  which  have,  atdif- 
erent  times,  wrecked  many  European  vessels  on 
the  island,  besides  the  numbers  that  have  foundered 
at  sea.  Haenan  has  its  aborigines  as  well  as  For- 
mosa :  they  are  said  to  inhabit  the  mountains  to* 


156  THE    CHINESE. 

wards  the  middle  of  the  island,  and  occasionally  to 
give  trouble  to  the  Chinese  government. 

The  Chinese  affect  to  consider  all  countries  trib- 
utary that  have  once  sent  an  ambassador ;  but  those 
which  have  really  been  so,  and  whose  tribute  is  pe- 
riodically forwarded  to  Peking,  are  Corea,  Cochin- 
china,  Lewkew  (or  Loo-choo),  and  Siam.  Corea 
(called  Chaou-sien  by  the  Chinese),  is  said  to  have 
become  a  kingdom  about  100  years  before  our  era: 
it  is  entirely  ruled  by  its  own  sovereigns,  but  the 
investiture  of  a  new  king  is  obtained  from  the  Em- 
peror of  China,  who,  whenever  there  is  a  vacancy, 
deputes  two  officers  to  confer  on  the  next  in  suc- 
cession the  title  of  kuo-w^ng.  To  prevent  contests 
after  death,  the  reigning  king  sometimes  names  his 
heir,  and  applies  to  the  emperor  to  confirm  him. 
The  Coreans  use  the  Chinese  character,  but  have  a 
syllabic  alphabet  of  their  own.  The  coasts  of  Co- 
rea are  very  far  from  being  correctly  laid  down  in 
the  maps,  nor  is  it  surprising  that  the  ships  of  the 
embassy  in  1816  found  them  so  erroneously  repre- 
sented ;  for  P.  Regis  states  that  no  European  had 
ever  entered  the  country,  and  that  the  only  author- 
ity for  the  missionaries'  map  of  Corea  was  a  native 
map,  brought  back  to  Peking  by  a  Chinese  envoy, 
and  adopted  for  want  of  a  better.  He  expressly 
says,  "  There  should  be  some  farther  observations 
on  the  south  and  east  sides,  which  would  complete 
the  accoiint  of  Corea  as  a  part  of  the  general  geog- 
raphy of  Asia."  The  chief  productions  of  Corea 
are  sable-skins,  ginseng,  and  a  strong  paper  used  by 
the  Chinese  for  windows,  in  lieu  of  glass. 

Cochin-china,  including  Tonkin,  bordering  on 
Kuangsy  province,  had  its  limits  fixed  as  a  separate 
state  about  A.  D.  250,  by  a  brass  pillar,  which  re- 
mains to  this  day,  and  of  which  the  situation  is 
marked  in  the  Jesuits'  map.  The  tribute  of  Cochin- 
china,  as  well  as  of  Siam,  is  sent  periodically  to 
Canton,  whence  it  is  forwarded  in  charge  of  the 


CHINESE  ACCOUNT  OF  LOO-CHOO.  157 

ambassadors  to  Peking,  and  the  vessels  claim  ex- 
emption from  port-charges  and  duties.  The  late 
war,  however,  between  Siam  and  Cochin-china  has 
interfered  with  the  regular  transmission  of  tribute 
from  both  countries. 

Lewkew,  or  Loo-choo,  has  been  made  in  some  de- 
gree familiar  to  us  by  the  relations  of  Captain  Basil 
Hall  and  Mr.  IM'Leod,  since  when  it  has  been  visited 
by  Captain  Beechey.  There  is  every  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  the  people  of  those  islands  are  A  jealous 
and  suspicious  race,  and  that  their  anxiety  to  ex- 
clude Europeans  from  their  country  was  veiled,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Alceste  and  Lyra's  visit,  under  a 
cunning  and  plausible  semblance  of  courtesy  and 
good- will, — for  hospitality  it  could  hardly  be  called. 
The  King  of  Loo-choo  derives  his  investiture  from 
the  Emperor  of  China,  and  sends  an  embassy  with 
tribute  about  once  in  two  years.  Those  islands  seem 
to  have  had  but  little  or  no  intercourse  with  China 
before  the  Yuen,  or  Mongol  dynasty ;  and  there  is 
reason  to  suppos^e  that  the  unsuccessful  expedition 
sent  by  Koblai  Khan  against  Japan  may  have  had 
some  communication  with  them,  and  originated  the 
relations  which  have  since  existed. 

According  to  the  Chinese  account  of  Loo-choo 
(printed  at  Peking  with  moveable  types),  the  island 
was  formerly  divided  into  three  nations  or  tribes, 
which  were  subsequently  united  into  one.  It  is 
stated  that  they  have  a  written  character  of  their 
own  (identical  Avith  that  of  Japan),  in  which  is  re- 
corded the  ancient  history  of  the  country,  but  that 
they  also  use  the  Chinese  character.  So  far  from 
the  people  of  Loo-choo  having  no  weapons,  the 
same  account  relates  that  the  foundation  of  the 
kingdom  was  laid  by  military  force,  and  that,  in  the 
temple  dedicated  to  the  conqueror,  there  is  to  this 
day  an  arrow  placed  before  the  tablet  where  his 
name  is  inscribed,  in  conformity  with  his  will,  to 
show  that  his  kingdom  was  established  by  arms. 

Vol.  L— O 


158  THE    CHINESE. 

They  have  also  a  copper  coin  of  their  own ;  but,  as 
the  metal  is  scarce  on  the  island,  it  exists  in  no 
large  quantity ;  and  this  may  perhaps  accomit  for 
the  first  J]nglish  visiters  having  seen  none.  The 
Chinese  say  they  sometimes  use  tlieir  copper  coin, 
and  sometimes  that  of  Japan,  both  of  which  are  in- 
troduced in  trade.  Loo-choo,  in  fact,  lies  equidis- 
tant from  both  countries,  and  is  tributary  to  both. 

According  to  the  same  authority  there  is  a  nomi- 
nal king  of  Loo-choo,  but  the  real  power  is  exer- 
cised by  a  minister,  who  is  absolute.  They  have 
borrowed  from  China  the  gradation  of  nine  ranks, 
and  compiled  a  system  of  law  from  the  penal  code 
of  their  great  neighbour.  They  likewise  borrowed 
from  China  its  best  institution — a  national  education, 
with  district  schools,  and  public  examinations  for 
promotion.  They  venerate  the  memory  of  Confu- 
cius, and  study  his  works,  with  the  notes  of  his  great 
commentator  Choofootse.  Their  religion  is  that  of 
Fo,  or  Buddha,  and  they  have  all  the  subordinate 
idols  attached  to  that  persuasion.  Among  other 
articles  of  food,  the  Chinese  say  that  the  Loo-cnoo- 
ans  make  a  sort  of  pemmican,  composed  of  meat 
and  pulse  pounded  and  pressed  together,  which  is 
dried  in  the  wind,  and  keeps  a  long  time.  Their 
dislike  of  foreign  visiters  no  doubt  arises  in  some 
measure  from  fear  of  giving  offence  to  the  Chinese, 
on  whom  they  are  dependant;  a  consideration 
which  likewise  influences  the  people  of  Corea  in 
their  exclusion  of  strangers. 

The  intercourse  of  China  with  Japan  from  the 
earliest  ages  seems  to  have  been  little  better  than 
an  infliction  of  mutual  injuries,  the  latter  country 
,being  too  independent  and  proud  to  yield  the  hom- 
age which  was  demanded  by  the  former.  The 
Mongol  conquerors  of  China,  urged  by  the  spirit  of 
universal  dominion,  made  the  most  frequent  and 
determined  attempts,  first  to  persuade  the  Japanese 
to  send  tribute,  and  then  to  subdue  them ;  but  all 


JAPAN.  159 

without  success.  The  missions  appear  to  have  been 
principally  on  the  part  of  China,  the  Japanese  some- 
times receiving  them  and  sometimes  refusing  to 
communicate  ;  but  making  few  or  no  returns,  and 
not  only  denying  the  homage  which  was  so  much 
coveted,  but  demanding  it  from  the  other  party.  At 
length  an  armament  of  15,000  men  Avas  sent  by  the 
way  of  Corea,  but  they  only  plundered  the  coast 
and  returned.  Six  years  afterward  an  envoy  was 
again  despatched,  who,  with  his  whole  retinue,  Avas 
murdered  by  the  Japanese.  This  led  to  an  arma- 
ment of  no  less  than  100,000  men  being  despatched 
from  China  by  Koblai  Khan  for  the  conquest  of  the 
country.  On  their  arrival  upon  the  northern  coast 
a  storm  arose,  which  destroyed  the  greater  number 
of  the  vessels ;  and  the  Japanese,  attacking  them 
on  shore  in  several  engagements,  either  killed  or 
made  captives  of  nearly  the  whole  force,  of  which 
it  is  said  that  only  three  individuals  ever  returned 
to  their  own  country.  This  agrees  in  the  main  with 
the  account  given  by  Marco  Polo. 

The  Chinese  dynasty  of  Ming,  which  drove  out 
and  succeeded  the  Mongols,  suffered  severely  from 
the  predatory  attacks  of  the  Japanese  on  the^  coast, 
in  return  for  the  hostilities  which  the  latter  had 
experienced  from  the  family  of  Koblai  Khan.  En- 
voys were  sent  to  remonstrate  on  the  subject,  and 
to  invite  the  Japanese  to  friendly  intercourse,  in 
which  a  hint  at  homage  seems  not  to  have  been 
forgotten.  They  were  permitted  to  land,  as  they 
were  not  sent  by  the  hateful  Mongols  ;  but  no  bet- 
ter success  appears  to  have  attended  their  efforts  to 
obtain  tribute,  although  some  of  the  persons  em- 
ployed as  envoys  were  priests  of  Buddha,  for  whom 
the  Japanese  have  a  respect,  on  account  of  theii 
connexion  with  their  own  national  rehgion.  Th 
piracies  along  the  eastern  coasts  of  China  wei-A 
frequently  repeated,  but  they  seem  to  have  led  to 
no  renewed  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  celestial 


160  THE  CHINESE. 

empire  to  punish  or  subdue  Japan.  Some  commer- 
cial intercourse  at  present  subsists  between  the 
two  countries,  principally  carried  on  in  junks  from 
Ningpo  and  Amoy.  The  Chinese  justly  value  the 
real  Japan-ware  above  their  own  inferior  manufac- 
ture in  lacker,  and  this  ware,  with  copper,  seems  to 
be  the  chief  article  of  import. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SUMMARY    OF    CHINESE    HISTORY. 

Early  History  of  China  mythological.— Three  Emperors. — Five 
Sovereigns.— Periods  of  Hea  and  Shang— of  Chow.— Confu- 
cius.— Period  of  Tsin.— First  universal  Sovereign. — Erection 
of  Great  Wall.— Period  of  Han— of  three  States— of  Tang.— 
Power  of  the  Eunuchs.— Invention  of  Pnnting. — Period  of 
Soong. — Mongol  Tartars. — Koblai  Khan. — Degeneracy  of  his 
Successors — who  are  driven  out  by  Chinese. — Race  of  Ming. 
— Arrival  of  Catholic  Priests. — Manchow  Tartars  take  China 
— opposed  by  Sea. — Emperor  Kang-hy. — Kienloong. — First 
British  Embassy. — Keaking's  last  Will. — Present  Emoeror. — 
Catholic  Missionaries  finally  discarded. 

Although  a  laboured  history  in  detail  of  the  Chi- 
nese empire  is  not  suited  to  the  character  and  ob- 
jects of  this  work,  still  a  rapid  sketch  of  such  revo- 
lutions as  that  country  has  undergone,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  last  Tartar  conquest,  seems  requisite, 
in  order  rightly  to  understand  Siome  peculiarities  in 
the  customs  of  the  people,  and  even  some  changes 
that  have  taken  place  among  a  race,  generally  re- 
markable for  the  unvarying  sameness  of  its  man- 
ners and  institutions. 

Without  attempting  to  deny  to  China  a  very  high 
degree  of  antiquity,  it  is  now  pretty  universally 


MYTHOLOGICAL   AGES.  161 

admitted,  on  the  testimony  of  the  most  respectable 
native  historians,  that  this  is  a  point  which  has  been 
very  much  exaggerated.  In  reference  to  tlie  earli- 
est traditions  of  their  history,  a  famous  commenta- 
tor named  Choofootse  observes,  "  It  is  impossible 
to  give  entire  credit  to  the  accounts  of  these  remote 
ages,"  China  has,  in  fact,  her  mythology  in  com- 
mon with  all  other  nations,  and  under  this  head  we 
must  range  the  persons  styled  Fohy,  Shin-noong, 
Hoang-ty,  and  their  immediate  successors,  who, 
like  the  demigods  and  heroes  of  Grecian  fable,  res- 
cued mankind  by  their  ability  or  enterprise  from 
the  most  primitive  barbarism,  and  have  since  been 
invested  with  superhuman  attributes.  The  most 
extravagant  prodigies  are  related  of  these  persons, 
and  the  most  incongruous  qualities  attributed  to 
them ; — according  to  Swift's  receipt  for  making  a 
hero,  who,  if  his  virtues  are  not  reducible  to  con- 
sistency, is  to  have  them  laid  in  a  heap  upon  him. 
"  National  vanity,  and  a  love  of  the  marvellous, 
have  influenced  in  a  similar  manner  the  early  history 
of  most  other  countries,  and  furnished  materials  for 
nursery  tales,  as  soon  as  the  spirit  of  sober  investi- 
gation .has  supplanted  that  appetite  for  wonders 
which  marks  the  infancy  of  nations  as  well  as  of 
individuals."* 

The  fabulous  part  of  Chinese  history  commences 
with  Puon-koo,  who  is  represented  in  a  dress  of 
leaves,  and  concerning  whom  every  thing  is  wild 
and  obscure.  He  is  said  to  have  been  followed  by 
a  number  of  persons  with  fanciful  names,  who,  in 
the  style  of  the  Hindoo  chronology,  reigned  for 
thousands  of  years,  until  the  appearance  of  Fohy, 
who,  it  is  said,  invented  the  arts  of  music,  numbers, 
&c.,  and  taught  his  subjects  to  live  in  a  civilized 
state.  He  inhabited  what  is  now  the  northern 
province  of  Shensy,  anciently  the  country  of  Tstn, 

*  Royal  Asiat.  Trans.,  vol.  i.,  Memoir  concerning  the  Chinese. 
02 


162  THE  CHINESE. 

or  Chin,  whence  some  derive  the  word  China,  by 
which  the  ehipire  has  been  for  ages  designated  in 
India.  Fohy  (often  absurdly  confounded  with  Fo^ 
or  Buddha)  and  his  two  successors  are  styled  the 
"  Three  Emperors,"  and  reputed  the  inventors 
of  all  the  arts  and  accommodations  of  life.  Of 
these,  Shin-noong,  or  the  "  divine  husbandman," 
instructed  his  people  in  agriculture ;  and  Hoang-ty 
divided  all  the  lands  into  groups  of  nine  equal 
squares,  of  which  the  middle  one  was  to  be  culti- 
vated in  common  for  the  benefit  of  the  state.  He 
is  said  likewise  to  have  invented  the  mode  of  no- 
ting the  cycle  of  sixty  years,  the  foundation  of  the 
Chinese  system  of  chronology.  The  series  of 
cycles  is  at  least  made  to  extend  back  to  the  time 
in  which  he  is  reputed  to  have  lived,  about  2600 
years  before  Christ :  but  it  is  obvious  that  there 
could  be  no  difficulty  in  calculating  it  much  farther 
back  than  even  that,  had  the  inventors  so  pleased  ; 
and  this  date  is  therefore  no  certain  proof  of  anti- 
quity.. 

To  the  "  three  emperors"  succeeded  the  "  five 
sovereigns,"  and  the  designations  seem  equally 
arbitrary  and  fanciful  in  both  cases,  being, in  fact 
distinctions  without  a  difference.  The  fictitious 
character  of  this  early  period  might  be  proved  in 
abundance  of  instances,  and  it  is  the  worst  feature 
of  Du  Halde's  compilation  that  it  sets  every  thing 
down  without  comment,  and  is  filled  with  general 
and  unmeaning  eulogies  out  of  Chinese  works, 
whatever  may  be  the  subject  of  description.  He 
observes  that  one  of  these  five  sovey-eigns  regulated 
the  calendar,  "  and  desired  to  begin  the  year  on 
the  first  day  of  the  month  in  which  the  sun  should 
be  nearest  the  15th  degree  of  Aquarius,  for  which 
he  is  called  the  author  and  father  of  the  ephemeris. 
He  chose  the  time  when  the  sun  passes  through 
the  middle  of  this  sign,  because  it  is  the  season  in 
which  the  earth  is  adorned  with  plants,  trees  renew 


MYTHOLOGICAL    AGES.  163 

their  verdure^  and  all  nature  seems  reanimated :'''' — 
this  of  course  must  uiean  the  spring  season.  Now 
the  person  alluded  to  is  said  to  have  lived  more 
'han  2000  years  before  Christ,  and,  according  to  the 
usual  mode  of  calculating  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes,  the  sun  must  have  passed  through  the 
15th  of  Aquarius,  in  his  time,  somewhere  about  the 
middle  of  December.  In  a  Chinese  historian  this 
strange  blunder  is  not  surprising,  and  only  shows 
the  character  of  their  earlier  records ;  but  it  ought 
to  have  been  corrected  in  a  European  work. 

Yaou  and  Shun,  the  last  two  of  the  five  sover- 
eigns, were  the  patterns  of  all  Chinese  emperors. 
To  Yaou  is  attributed  the  intercalation  (in  their 
lunar  year)  of  an  additional  lunar  month  seven  times 
in  every  nineteen  years  ;  the  number  of  days  in 
seven  lunations  being  nearly  equal  to  nineteen  mul- 
tiplied by  eleven,  which  last  is  the  number  of  days 
by  wjiich  the  lunar  year  falls  short  of  the  solar. 
Yaou  is  said  to  _have  set  aside  his  own  son,  and 
chosen  Shun  to  be  his  successor,  on  account  of  his 
virtues.  The  choice  of  the  reigning  emperor  is 
the  rule  of  succession  at  the  present  day,  and  it  is 
seldom  that  the  eldest  son  succeeds  in  preference 
to  the  rest.  To  the  age  of  Shun  the  Chinese  refer 
their  tradition  of  an  extensive  flooding  of  the  lands, 
which  by  some  has  been  identified  with  the  Mosaic 
deluge.  It  was  for  his  merit  in  draining  the  coun- 
try, or  drawing  off  the  waters  of  the  great  inunda- 
tion, in  which  he  was  employed  eight  years,  that 
"  Yu  the  great"  was  chosen  by  Shun  for  his  suc- 
cessor. 

He  commenced  the  period  called  Hea,  upwards  of 
2100  years  before  Christ.  Yu  is  described  as  nine 
cubits  in  height,  and  it  is  stated  that  "  the  skies 
rained  gold  for  three  days ;"  which  certainly  (as 
Dr.  Morrison  observes)  "  lessens  the  credit  of  the 
history  of  this  period."  In  fact,  the  whole  of  the 
long  space  of  time  included  under  Hea  and  Shing 


164  THE  CHINESE. 

is  full  of  the  marvellous.  Chow-wdng,  however,  the 
last  of  the  Sh^ng  (about  ilOO  years  before  Christ), 
was  a  tyrant,  by  all  accounts,  not  more  remarkable 
for  his  cruelty  or  extravagances  than  many  other 
tyrants  have  "been.  Frequent  allusion  is  made  to 
him  in  Chinese  books,  as  well  as  to  his  wife,  and 
various  stories  are  related  of  their  crimes.  One  of 
the  emperor's  relations  having  ventured  to  remon- 
strate with  him,  the  cruel  monarch  ordered  his 
heart  to  be  brought  to  him  for  inspection,  observ- 
ing, that  he  wished  to  see  in  what  respects  the 
heart  of  a -sage  differed  from  those  of  common 
men.  With  the  Chinese,  the  heart  is  the  seat  of 
the  mind. 

At  length  Woo-wong,  literally  "the  martial  king," 
was  called  upon  to  depose  the  tyrant,  and  all  the 
people  turned  against  the  latter.  When  no  hopes 
were  left,  he  arrayed  himself  in  his  splendour,  and, 
retiring  to  his  palace,  set  fire  to  it  and  perished,  like 
another  Sardanapalus,  in  the  flames.  When  the 
conqueror  entered,  the  first  object  he  perceived 
was  the  guilty  queen,  whom  he  put  to  death  with 
his  own  hand,  and  immediately  became  the  first  of 
the  dynasty  Choic.  This  forms  the  subject  of  a 
portion  of  the  Shooking,  one  of  the  five  classical 
books  delivered  down  by  Confucius. 

The  Chinese  have  no  existing  records  older  than 
the  compilations  of  Confucius,  who  was  nearly 
contemporary  with  Herodotus,  the  father  of  Gre- 
cian history,  and  to  whom  Pope  has  given  a  very 
lofty  niche  in  his  Temple  of  Fame  :-— 

"  Superior  and  alone  Confucius  stood. 
Who  taught  that  useful  science — to  be  good." 

The  Jive  classics  and  the  four  books,  which  were  be- 
queathed by  that  teacher  or  by  his  disciples,  con- 
tain what  is  now  known  of  the  early  traditions  or 
records  of  the  country.  The  period  of  authentic 
history  may  be  considered  as  dating  from  the  race 


CONFUCIUS.'  165 

of  Chow,  in  Avhose  time  Confucius  himself  lived ; 
for,  although  it  might  be  going  too  far  to  condemn 
all  that  precedes  that  period  as  absolutely  fabulous, 
it  is  still  so  much  mixed  up  with  fable  as  hardly  to 
deserve  the  name  of  history.  In  his  work  called 
Chun-tsieu  {spring  and  autumn,  because  written  be- 
tween those  seasons)  Confucius  gives  tlie  annals  of 
his  own  times,  and  relates  the  wars  of  the  several 
petty  states  against  each  other.  The  southern 
half  of  the  present  empire  (to  the  south  of  the 
Yangtse-keang)  was  then  in  a  state  of  entire  barba- 
rism ;  and  the  northern  half,  extending  from  that 
river  to  the  confines  of  Tartary,  was  divided  among 
a  number  of  petty  independent  states,  derived  from 
a  common  origin,  but  engaged  in  perpetual  hostili- 
ties with  each  other. 

The  period  of  Chow,  comprising  above  eight  cen- 
turies, and  extending  down  to  240  B.  C,  was  dis- 
tinguished, not  only  by  the  birth  of  Confucius,  but 
by  the  appearance,  in  China,  of  Laou-keun,  and,  in 
India,  of  Fo,  or  Buddha,  who  were  destined  to  give 
rise  to  the  two  sects  which,  subordinate  to  that  of 
Confucius  himself,  have  influenced  rather  than  di- 
vided the  population  of  China  ever  since.  The 
estimation,  however,  which  they  have  respectively 
enjoyed  has  been  very  different.  The  memory 
and  the  doctrines  of  Confucius  have  met  with 
almost  uninterrupted  veneration  to  the  present 
time  ;  they  have  even  retained  their  supremacy 
over  the  native  worship  of  the  Tartar  dynasty; 
while  the  absurd  superstitions  of  the  other  two 
have  been  alternately  embraced  and  despised  by  the 
different  sovereigns  of  the  country.  The  mumme- 
ries of  the  Buddhists  are  a  parallel  to  the  worst 
parts  of  Roman  Catholicism ;  and  the  disciples  of 
Laou-keun  combine  a  variety  of  superstitions ;  each 
sect,  at  the  same  time,  being  plainly  a  corruption 
of  somethiilg  that  was  better  in  its  origin.     We 


166  THE    CHINESE. 

shall  have  to  speak  of  these  more  in  detail  hereaf- 
ter, under  the  head  of  Religions. 

Confucius  was  respected  by  the  sovereigns,  of 
nearly  all  the  independent  states  of  China,  and  was 
employed  as  minister  by  one  of  them.  After  his 
death,  which  happened  B.  C.  477,  at  the  age  of 
seventy-three,  a  series  of  sanguinary  contests  arose 
among  the  petty  kingdoms,  which  gave  to  this  pe- 
riod of  history  the  name  of  Chen-kuo,  or  the  "con- 
tending nations,"  and  proved  in  after-times  the  ruin 
of  the  race  of  Choiv.  The  King  of  Tsin  had  long 
been  growing  povv^erful  at  the  expense  of  the  neigh- 
bouring states  :  he  fought  against  six  other  nations, 
and,  after  a  course  of  successes,  compelled  them  all 
to  acknowledge  his  supremacy.  The  chief  govern- 
ment began  now  to  assume  the  aspect  of  an  empire^ 
which  comprehended  that  half  of  modern  China 
lying  to  the  north  of.  the  great  Keang ;  but  which, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  centuries,  was  doomed 
again  to  be  split  into  several  parts. 

The  first  einperor  (which  is  implied  by  the  title 
Chy-hoang-ty)  being  troubled-  by  the  incursions  of 
the  Tartars  on  the  northern  frontier,  rendered  him- 
self for  ever  famous  by  the  erection  of  the  vast  wall, 
which  has  now  stood  for  2000  years,  extending 
along  a  space  of  1500  miles,  from  the  Gulf  of  Peking 
to  Wfestern  Tartary.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
this  monstrous  monument  of  human  labour  contains 
materials  sufficient  to  surround  the  whole  globe,  on 
one  of  its  largest  circles,  with  a  wall  several  feet  in 
height.  Another  act  of  the  same  emperor  entitled 
him  to  a  different  species  of  fame.  He  ordered  that 
all  the  books  of  the  learned,  including  the  writings 
of  Confucius,  should  be  cast  into  the  flames ;  many, 
of  course,  escaped  this  sentence,  through  the  zeal 
of  those  who  cultivated  learning  ;  but  it  is  said  that 
upwards  of  400  persons,  who  attempted  to  evade  or 
oppose  the  order,  were  burnt  with  the  books  they 
wished  to  save.     It  is  not  easy  to  explain  the  fan- 


PERIOD   OF  HAN.  167 

tastic  wickedness  of  such  an  act  on  any  common 
principles;  but  one  reason  alleged  for  it  is,  the 
jealousy  that  this  foolish  emperor  entertained  of  the 
fame  of  his  progenitors,  and  the  wish  he  indulged 
that  posterity  should  hear  of  none  before  himself. 

About  the  year  201  B.  C,  the  race  of  Han  suc- 
ceeded to  the  sovereignty,  and  commenced  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  periods  of  Chinese  history.  It 
was  now  that  the  Tartars,  by  their  predatory  war- 
fare, became  the  source  of  endless  disquiet  to  the 
more  polished  and  peaceful  Chinese,  by  whom  they 
were  in  vain  propitiated  with  alliances  and  tribute. 
They  were  the  Hing-kuo  (erratic  nations),  against 
whom  the  first  emperor  had  vainly  built  the  wall ; 
and  under  the  name  of  Heung-uoo  (Huns)  they  con- 
stantly appear  in  the  histories  or  fictions  of  that 
period.  The  first  emperors  of  this  race  endeavour- 
ed to  make  friends  of  the  Tartar  chiefs  by  giving 
them  their  daughters  in  marriage.  "  The  disgrace," 
says  an  historian  of  that  period,  "  could  not  be  ex- 
ceeded— from  this  time  China  lost  her  honour."  In 
the  reign  of  Yuenty,  the  ninth  emperor,  the  Tartars 
having  been  provoked  by  the  punishment  of  two  of 
their  leaders,  who  had  transgressed  the  bomidaries 
of  the  great  wall  in  hunting,  the  empire  was  again 
invaded,  and  a  princess  demanded  and  yielded  in 
marriage.  This  forms  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
hundred  plays  of  Yuen,  an  English  version  of  which 
was  printed  by  the  Oriental  Translation  Committee 
in  1829,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Sorrows  of  H^n." 
The  impolitic  system  of  buying  off  the  barbarians, 
which  commenced  so  early,  terminated  many  cen- 
turies afterward  in  the  overthrow  of  the  empire. 

The  seventeenth  emperor  of  H4n,  by  name  Ho-ty, 
is  said  to  have  had  considerable  intercourse  with 
the  west.  It  is  even  recorded  that  one  of  his  en- 
voys reached  Ta^5/J2,  or  Arabia.  It  is  certain  that 
eunuchs,  those  fertile  sources  of  trouble  to  his  suc- 
cessors, were  introduced  during  his  reign,  and  it 


168  THE  CHINESE. 

may  be  inferred  that  he  borrowed  them  from  west- 
ern Asia,  about  A.  D.  95.  The  reigns  of  the  last 
two  emperors  of  H^n  were  disturbed  by  the  mach- 
inations of  the  eunuchs,  and  by  the  wars  with  the 
rebels  called  Hoang-kin,  or  Yellow  Caps.  At  this 
time  so  little  was  left  of  the  sovereign  authority, 
that  the  emperors  are  frequently  designated  by  the 
mere  term  Choo,  or  lord. 

The  period  of  the  Saji-kuo,  or  "Three  States,'* 
into  which  the  country  was  divided  towards  the 
close  of  Han,  about  A.  D.  184,  is  a  favomite  sub- 
ject of  the  historical  plays  and  romances  of  the 
Chinese.  A  work,  designated  particularly  by  the 
above  name,  is  much  prized  and  very  popular  among 
them,  and  a  manuscript  translation  of  it  in  Latin, 
by  one  of  the  Catholic  missionaries,  exists  in  the 
library  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.  Extracts  from 
it  might  be  made  interesting,  but^  the  whole  is  per- 
haps too  voluminous  to  bear  an  English  translation 
in  print.  It  is,  however,  as  little  stuffed  with  extrav- 
agances as  could  be  expected  from  an  Oriental 
history;  and,  except  that  it  is  in  prose,  bears  a  re- 
semblance in  some  of  its  features  to  the  Iliad,  es- 
pecially in  what  Lord  Chesterfield  calls  "  the  por- 
ter-like language"  of  the  heroes.  These  heroes 
excel  all  moderns  in  strength  and  prowess,  and 
make  exchanges  after  the  fashion  of  Glaucus  and 
Diomed,  Hector  and  Ajax.  One  sliows  his  liberal- 
ity in  horses,  another  in  a  weight  of  silver,  or  iron : — 

And  steel  well  tempered,  and  refulgent  gold." 

Society  seems  to  have  been  in  much  the  same  state^ 
split  into  something  like  feudal  principalities,  hang- 
ing loosely  together  under  the  questionable  author- 
ity of  one  head.  That  great  step  in  civihzation,. 
the  invention  of  printing  (which  arose  in  China 
about  the  tenth  century  of  our  era),  had  not  yet 
taken  place,  and  even  the  manufacture  of  paper  had 
not  long  been  introduced. 


THREE   STATES.  169 

The  leader  of  Wei,  one  of  the  three  states,  hav- 
ing at  length  obtained  the  sovereignty,  established 
the  capital  in  his  own  country,  Hon^n,  and  com- 
menced the  dynasty  called  Tsin,  A.  D.  200.  Hav- 
ing taken  warning  from  the  distractions  arising  from 
the  interference  of  eunuchs  and  women  in  affairs 
of  government  during  the  period  of  the  three  states, 
a  kind  of  salique-law  was  passed,  that  "queens  should 
not  reign,  nor  assist  in  public  matters" — a  good  law, 
adds  the  historian,  and  worthy  of  being  an  example  : 
it  was,  however,  soon  afterward  abrogated  in  prac- 
tice. It  has  been  concluded,  not  without  probability, 
that  the  name  China,  Sina,  or  Tsina,  was  taken  from 
the  dynasty  of  Tsin.  The  first  emperor,  or  founder,  is 
said  to  have  had  political  transactions  with  Fergana, 
a  province  of  Sogdiana,  and  to  have  received  a  Ro- 
man embassy. 

On  the  conclusion  of  this  race  of  sovereigns,  in 
A.  D.  416,  China  became  divided  into  two  principal 
kingdoms,  Nanking  being  the  capital  of  the  southern 
one,  and  Hon^n  of  the  northern.  For  about  200 
years  afterward  five  successive  races  (ivoo-tae)  rap- 
idly followed  each  other,  and  the  salutary  rule  of 
hereditary  succession  being  constantly  violated  by 
the  strongest,  the  whole  history  of  the  period  is  a 
mere  record  of  contests  and  crimes.  At  length,  in 
A.  D.  585,  the  north  and  south  were  united  for  the 
first  time  into  one  empire,  of  which  the  capital  was 
fixed  at  Honan.  The  last  of  the  five  contending 
races  was  soon  after  deposed  by  Ly-yuen,  who 
founded,  in  A.  D.  622,  the  dynasty  of  Tang. 

Tae-tsoong,  the  second  emperor  of  this  race,  was 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  China ;  his  maxims 
are  constantly  quoted  in  books,  and  his  temperance 
and  love  of  justice  considered  as  patterns.  There 
is  reason  to  believe  that  certain  Christians  of  the 
Nestorian  church  first  came  to  China  in  his  reign, 
about  A.  D.  640.  It  is  recorded  that  foreigners  ar- 
rived, having  fair  hair  and  blue  eyes.    According  to 

Vol.  I.— P 


170  THE   CHINESE. 

the  Jesuits?,  whom  Du  Halde  has  quoted,  a  stone 
monumeut  was  found  at  Sy-gdn-foo  m  Shensy,  A.D. 
1625,  with  the  cross,  an  abstract  of  the  Christian 
law.  and  the  names  of  72  preachers  in  Syriac  char- 
acters, bearing  the  fore-mentioned  date.  It  has 
been  urged  that  this  discovery  may  have  been  a 
pious  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  holy  fathers ;  but  it 
is  not  easy  to  assign  any  adequate  motive  for  such 
a  forgery,  and  the  evidence  seems  upon  the  whole 
in  its  favour. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  in  the 
history  of  Ting  is  the  extraordinary  power  which 
the  eunuchs  of  the  palace  arrogated  to  themselves. 
The  third  emperor  was  so  besotted  by  one  of  his 
wives,  that  he  left  her  invested  with  sovereign  pow- 
er at  his  death,  contrary  to  the  enactment  before 
made  and  provided.  She  reigned  for  above  20  years 
absolutely,  leaving  her  son  emperor;  and  this 
vicious  and  troubled  period  is  another  example 
quoted  by  the  Chinese  of  the  mischiefs  which  result 
to  public  affairs  from  the  management  of  women. 
During  her  reign  the  eunuchs  gathered  fresh  force, 
and  for  a  considerable  time  had  the  choice  of  the 
emperors,  and  the  control  of  their  actions.  The  in- 
fluence of  such  singular  rulers  must  of  course  be 
referred  to  the  operations  of  intrigue.  The  uncon- 
trolled access  which  their  condition  gave  them  to 
all  parts  of  the  palace,  ^md  to  the  company  of  both 
sexes,  was  greatly  calculated  to  facilitate  their  pro- 
jects :  and  projects  of  mischief  and  disorder  were 
the  most  likely  ones  to  be  formed  by  those  who 
were  cut  off  from  the  ties  of  kindred,  and  suffi- 
ciently disposed  to  regard  the  rest  of  mankind  as 
their  enemies.  The  awe  of  state  was  not  long  felt 
by  such  as  were  the  immediate  attendants,  and  per- 
haps the  companions,  of  the  sovereign,  in  his  private 
haunts ;  and,  that  barrier  once  passed,  the  approach- 
es of  insolence  and  usurpation  might  advance  un- 
checked.   The  power  of  the  eunuchs  was  at  length 


TRACES  OF   FEUDALISM.  171 

destroyed  by  the  last  emperor  of  the  race,  who  in 
great  measure  extirpated  them,  through  the  as- 
sistance of  a  powerful  leader,  whose  aid  he  re- 
quested. This  person  fulfilled  his  commission,  but 
subsequently  killed  the  emperor  and  his  heir,  and, 
after  a  course  of  atrocious  cruelties,  put  an  end  to 
the  dynasty  T^ng,  A.  D.  897. 

The  whole  country  was  once  more  thrown  into  a 
state  of  war  and  confusion,  with  several  aspirants 
to  the  sovereignty.  This  period,  which  lasted 
about  fifty-three  years,  is  called  in  Chinese  histo- 
ries the  Hoxo  Wootae,  or  "  latter  five  successions." 
The  Tartar  people  of  the  region  now  called  Leaou- 
tung,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  great  wall, 
encouraged  by  the  unsettled  and  divided  condition 
of  the  empire,  gave  much  trouble  by  their  incursions. 

These  turbulent  portions  of  the  Chinese  annals, 
which  were  now  soon  to  give  way  to  a  settled  ori- 
ental despotism,  bear  many  features  of  a  feudal 
cast  about  them.  We  think  we  can  perceive  in  the 
book  of  Meng-tse,  or  Mencius  (as  his  name  has  been 
Latinized  by  the  Jesuits),  that  the  original  govern- 
ment of  China  approached  in  some  degree  to  that 
description.  "  The  sovereign,  the  Koong,  the  How, 
the  Pe,  and  the  Nin,  constituted  five  ranks.  The 
sovereign  had  the  immediate  government  of  100  ly ; 
the  Koong  and  How  each  of  100  ly ;  the  Pe  70 ;  and 
the  N^n  50  ly." — {Hea-meng,  ch.  x.)  We  read  in 
their  histories  of  grants  of  land  to  certain  officers 
of  state,  and  of  government  and  military  lands,  in 
which  may  be  perceived  a  resemblance  to  the  feu- 
dal fiefs  or  benefices.  Whatever  may  have  been 
the  tenure  in  former  times,  the  emperor  is  now,  as 
in  most  oriental  countries,  regarded  as  the  ultimate 
owner  of  all  lands,  from  which  he  receives  a  tax  of  ■ 
about  10  per  cent.  1 

After  a  succession  of  civil  wars,  Tae-tsoo,  the' 
first  emperor  of  the  Soong  dynasty,  was  raised  to 
the  throne  by  the  military  leaders,  in  consequence 


172  THE  CHINESE. 

of  the  minority  of  the  real  heir,  who  was  only 
seven  years  of  age,  A.  D.  950.  Being  about  to  en- 
gage the  Eastern  Tartars,  they  did  not  wish  to  be 
ruled  by  a  child,  who  could  not  appreciate  their 
services.  They  accordingly  fixed  on  a  servant  of 
the  deceased  emperor,  and  immediately  despatched 
messengers,  who  found  him  overcome  with  wine, 
and  in  that  state  communicated  their  message.  The 
history  adds,  that,  "  before  he  had  time  to  reply, 
the  yellow  robe  was  already  applied  to  his  person." 
Substitute  purple  for  yellow,  and  this  might  be 
taken  for  the  translation  of  some  passages  in  Taci- 
tus or  Suetonius. 

The  art  of  printing  having  been  invented  just  pre- 
vious to  this  dynasty,  about  five  hundred  years  be- 
fore it  was  known  to  us,  the  multiplication  of  books, 
the  instruments  of  learning,  was  a  principal  cause  of 
the  literary  character  of  the  age  of  Soong;  to  the 
same  cause  may  be  attributed  the  increased  fulness 
of  the  records  of  this  period,  from  whence  the 
really  interesting  thread  of  Chinese  history  com- 
mences. Our  lights  now  multiply  fast,  and  the 
Tartars  begin  to  take  a  considerable  share  in  the 
national  transactions.  In  fact,  the  whole  history  of 
this  polished  but  unwarlike  race  is  a  series  of  dis- 
graceful acts  of  compromise  with  the  Eastern 
Tartars,  called  Kin  (the  origin  of  the  Manchows,  or 
present  reigning  family),  until  the  Mongols,  or 
Western  Tartars,  took  possession  of  the  empire 
under  Koblai  Khan. 

In  the  reign  of  Chin-tsoong,  the  third  emperor  of 
Soong,  the  Eastern  Tartars,  having  laid  siege  to  a 
town  near  Peking,  were  forced  to  treat,  but  still  ob- 
tained advantageous  terms,  with  a  large  annual  do- 
native of  money  and  silk.  The  pacific  disposition 
of  Jin-tsoong,  the  fourth  emperor,  gave  them  far- 
ther encouragement,  and  a  disgraceful  treaty  was 
the  consequence.  Ten  districts  to  the  south  of  the 
wall  being  claimed  by  them,  they  received  an  an- 


EASTERN  TARTARS.  173 

iiual  quit-rent  of  200,000  taels,  and  a  quantity  of 
silk.  To  complete  his  disgrace,  the  emperor  called 
himself  a  tributart/,  making  use  of  the  term  Na- 
koong. 

Shin-tsoong,  the  sixth  emperor,  is  described  as 
having  hastened  the  fall  of  his  race  by  attending  to 
the  absurd  suggestions  of  a  minister,  who  was  for 
reverting  to  the  antiquated  maxims  of  Yaou  and 
Shun,  names  which  may  properly  be  said  to  belong 
rather  to  the  mythology  than  the  history  of  the 
empire.  At  length  Wei-tsoong,  the  eighth  sovereign 
in  succession,  enslaved  himself  to  the  eunuchs, 
and  soon  experienced  the  consequences  of  his 
weakness  and  imbecility.  The  Eastern  Tartars  ad- 
vanced apace,  took  possession  of  a  part  of  northern 
China,  and  threatened  the  whole  country:  they 
were  destined,  however,  to  be  checked,  not  by  the 
Chinese,  but  the  Mongols.  These  inhabited  the 
countries  which  extend  from  the  northwestern  prov- 
inces of  China  to  Thibet  and  Sarmacand.  They 
had  already  conquered  India,  and  being  now  called 
in  against  the  Kin  or  Eastern  Tartars,  they  soon 
subdued  both  them  and  the  enei'vated  Chinese,  whom 
they  had  been  invited  to  protect. 

The  Mongols  might  be  said  to  be  masters  of  the 
northern  half  of  modern  China  from  the  year  1234. 
The  Kin,  who  until  then  had  occupied  a  part  of  the 
provinces  bordering  on  the  wall,  were  attacked  on 
one  side  by  the  Chinese,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
Mongols,  under  the  command  of  the  famous  Pe-yen 
{hundred-eyes,  or  Argus),  who  is  mentioned  by  Marco 
Polo,  and  the  correctness  of  whose  name  is  of  it- 
self a  sufficient  proof  of  the  genuineness  of  that 
early  traveller's  narrative.  Their  principal  city  was 
taken,  and  the  death  of  their  prince  put  an  end  for 
the  present  to  the  Eastern  Tartars;  but  the  remnant 
became  the  stock  from  whence  grew  the  Manchovvs, 
who  afterward  conquered  China,  and  who  hold  it  to 
this  day  in  subjection. 

P2 


174  THE  CHINESE. 

"When  Koblai  Khan  had  possessed  himself  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  empire,  he  took  occasion  of 
the  infancy  of  the  reigning  Chinese  emperor  to  use 
an  argument  convenient  to  his  purpose.  "  Your 
family,"  said  he,  "  owes  its  rise  to  the  minority  of 
the  last  emperor  of  the  preceding  house  ;  it  is  there- 
fore just  that  the  remains  of  Soong  should  give 
place  to  another  family."  The  famous  Pe-yen  pur- 
sued the  Chinese  army  first  to  Fokien,  and  after- 
ward to  Hoey-chow,  in  Canton  province.  Great 
cruelty  was  exercised  on  the  vanquished,  and  it  is 
recorded  that  "  the  blood  of  the  people  flowed  in 
sounding  torrents."  The  remains  of  the  Chinese 
court  betook  themselves  to  the  sea  near  Canton, 
and  perished,  A.  D.  1281. 

On  the  accession  of  Koblai  Khan,  the  first  of  the 
Yuen  dynasty,  the  favourite  religion  of  the  Tartars 
being  that  of  Buddha,  or  Fo,  of  which  the  grand 
lama  of  Thibet  is  the  head,  an  order  was  promul- 
gated to  burn  all  the  books  of  the  Taou  sect.  An 
exception  was  suggested  in  favour  of  the  Taou-te- 
king,  as  the  only  really  inspired  writing  of  that  re- 
ligion ;  but  the  order  was  made  peremptory  to  burn 
them  all.  The  historian,  a  Confucian,  observes  that 
his  majesty,  who  favoured  Buddhism,  and  those  of 
his  predecessors  who  had  encouraged  the  other 
persuasion,  were  equally  erroneous  and  partial; 
both  doctrines  should  have  been  extinguished. 
Buddhism,  in  fact,  has  never  flourished  as  it  did 
under  the  Mongol  Tartar  race. 

Koblai  fixed  the  seat  of  government  at  Peking, 
or  Kambalu,  as  it  is  styled  by  Marco  Polo,  after  the 
Tartars.  As  the  most  effectual  remedy  for  the 
sterility  of  the  plain  in  v/hich  that  capital  is  situa- 
ted, he  constructed  the  vast  canal,  extending  south 
a  distance  of  about  300  leagues  into  the  most  fertile 
provinces,  and  serving  as  an  easy  conveyance  for 
their  products,  independently  of  a  sea  navigation. 
This  great  work,  which  is  more  particularly  descri- 


KOBLAI  KHAN.  175 

bed  in  its  proper  place,  was  a  benefit  to  China,  by 
itself  sufficient  to  redeem  in  some  measure  the  in- 
justice and  violence  by  which  the  Mongol  possessed 
himself  of  the  empire. 

The  northern  portion  of  China  was  now  known  by 
the  name  Kathai,  or  Cathay,  the  appellation  invari- 
ably given  to  it  by  the  Venetian  traveller.  The 
southern  was  styled  Manjee,  which  is  evidently  a 
corruption  of  Mantsze,  originally  applied  to  the  bar- 
barians of  the  south.  There  is  a  portion  of  Ava 
bordering  on  China  at  this  day  called  Manchegee, 
which  probably  has  the  same  derivation.  Notwith- 
standing the  great  quahties  of  Koblai,  which  were 
calculated  to  lay  the  foundations  of  a  permanent 
dominion,  the  degeneracy  of  his  successors  was 
such  as  to  cause  the  empire  to  pass  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  Mongol  race  in  a  little  more  than  eighty 
years'  time.  There  is  scarcely  any  thing  worthy  of 
notice  in  their  annals,  save  the  rapid  and  excessive 
degeneracy  of  these  Tartar  princes.  Koblai  had 
wisely  adopted  the  political  institutions  of  China ; 
but  those  who  followed  him  surpassed  the  Chinese 
themselves  in  their  luxury  and  effeminacy.  Ener- 
vated by  the  climate  and  vices  of  the  south,  they 
quickly  lost  the  courage  and  hardihood  which  had 
put  the  country  in  possession  of  their  ancestors ; 
and  Shunty,  the  ninth  emperor  in  succession,  was 
compelled  to  resign  the  empire  to  a  Chinese. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  of  the  score  of  dy- 
nasties which  have  followed  each  other,  all  estab- 
lished themselves  on  the  vices,  luxury,  or  indolence 
of  their  immediate  forerunners.  The  present  Man- 
chow  race  has  already  shown  no  unequivocal  symp* 
toms  of  degeneracy.  The  two  greatest  princes  by 
whom  it  has  been  distinguished,  Kanghy  and  Kien- 
loong,  sedulously  maintained  the  ancient  habits  of 
their  Tartar  subjects  by  frequent  hunting  excursions 
beyond  the  wall,  in  which  they  individually  bore  no 
small  share  of  the  fatigue  and  danger.    The  late 


176  THE   CHINESE. 

emperor,  Keaking,  and  the  present  one  have,  on  the 
other  hand,  been  remarkable  for  their  comparative 
indolence ;  and  tlie  reigns  of  both  have  exhibited  a 
mere  succession  of  revolts  and  troubles.  The  fol- 
lowing is  part  of  an  edict  issued  by  the  reigning 
monarch  in  1824 : — "  With  reference  to  the  autum- 
nal hunt  of  the  present  year,  I  ought  to  follow  the 
estabhshed  custom  of  my  predecessors  ;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  be  guided  by  the  cir- 
eumstances  of  the  times,  and  to  act  in  conformity 
to  them.  The  expedition  to  Je-hio  (Zhehol)  is  also 
ordered  to  be  put  off  for  this  year.  It  is  an  invol- 
untary source  of  vexation  to  me :  I  should  not  think 
of  adopting  this  measure  from  a  love  of  ease  and 
indulgence."  Since  that  date,  however,  the  same 
course  has  been  repeated  under  various  pretexts. 
The  Manchow  rule  has  already  lasted  much  longer 
than  the  Mongol,  and,  from  all  present  appearances, 
a  bold  Chinese  adventurer  might  perhaps  succeed 
in  overthrowing  it. 

The  first  emperor  of  the  Mi7ig  dynasty,  which 
expelled  the  Mongols  in  1366,  had  been  servant  to  a 
monastery  of  bonzes,  or  priests  of  Buddha.  Having 
joined  a  numerous  body  of  revolters,  he  soon  be- 
came their  leader,  and,  after  making  himself  master 
of  some  provinces  in  the  south,  at  length  defeated 
a  part  of  the  emperor's  troops  in  a  great  battle. 
The  Chinese  now  flocked  to  him  from  all  parts ;  and, 
having  crossed  the  Yellow  river,  he  forced  Shunty 
to  fly  northward,  where  he  died  soon  after,  leaving 
the  empire  in  possession  of  the  successful  Chinese, 
who  assumed  the  sovereignty  with  the  title  of  Tae- 
tsoo,  or  "great  ancestor." 

The  new  emperor  endeavoured  to  establish  his 
capital  at  Foongyang-foo,  his  native  city,  but  was 
obliged,  from  its  local  disadvantages,  to  give  it  up, 
and  adopt  Nanking  instead ;  erecting  Peking  into  a 
principality  for  one  of  his  younger  sons,  Yoong-13. 
When  this  prince  succeeded  as  third  jemperor  of  his 


RACE  OP  MING.  177 

family,  the  capital  was  transferred  in  1408  to  Pe- 
king ;  a  principal  reason  perhaps  being  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  the  Eastern  Tartars  in  check.  Nan- 
king was  still  occupied  by  the  heir,  with  a  distinct 
set  of  tribunals,  and  this  shows  more  confidence 
than  is  commonly  displayed  under  Asiatic  despo- 
tisms. It  was  in  the  same  reign  that  Timour,  or 
Tamerlane,  died  on  his  way  to  the  conquest  of  China, 
in  the  year  1405. 

During  the  reign  of  Hoong-hy,  the  fourth  empe^ 
ror  of  the  Ming  family,  a  great  conflagration  of  the 
palace  melted  together  a  mixture  of  valuable  met- 
als, and  from  this  compound  were  constructed  num- 
bers of  vases,  which  are  highly  valued  at  the  present 
day.  In  this,  the  reader  may  perceive  an  origin 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  famous  Corinthian 
brass.  Some  of  the  Chinese  vases  so  highly  es- 
teemed were  seen  by  the  British  embassy  near 
Nanking  in  1816.  It  is  a  common  practice,  how- 
ever, at  present,  to  put  the  name  of  the  above  em- 
peror on  vases  which  have  no  pretensions  whatever 
to  this  antique  value. 

It  was  in  the  same  dynasty  that  the  Portuguese, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  came  to  China,  and  ob- 
tained, about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
their  imperfect  tenure  of  Macao ;  and  it  was  also 
under  the  Ming  race  that  the  Jesuits  established 
themselves  in  China.  The  zeal  and  address  with 
which  these  intelligent  and  adventurous  men  open- 
ed a  way  for  themselves  and  their  mission,  are  de- 
serving of  high  praise ;  and  the  knowledge  which 
some  of  them  obtained  of  the  language,  manners, 
and  institutions  of  the  country,  has  never,  perhaps, 
been  surpassed  by  any  other  Europeans.  Had  it 
not  been  for  the  narrow-minded  bigotry  and  intoler- 
ance with  w^hich  some  of  the  popes,  and  the  monks 
whom  they  deputed  to  China,  frustrated  the  labours 
of  the  more  sober-minded  Jesuits,  Europeans  and 
their  religion  might  at  this  day  enjoy  a  very  differ- 
ent footing  in  the  empire. 


178  THE    CHINESE. 

In  the  year  1618,  Wanlie,  the  thirteenth  emperor 
of  the  Chinese  dynasty,  being  on  the  throne,  a  war 
commenced  with  the  Eastern  Tartars,  who  now  call- 
ed their  country  (the  present  Mougden)  IManchow, 
which  means  "the  full  region."  We  have  before 
seen  that,  just  previous  to  the  Mongol  conquest,  and 
during  the  latter  end  of  the  Soong  dynasty,  these 
Eastern  Tartars,  mider  the  name  of  Km,  or  the 
"golden"  race,  had  subdued  some  portion  of  the 
north  of  China,  but  were  driven  out  by  the  Mongols. 
When  the  last  of  the  Mongols,  descendants  of  Ko- 
blai  Khan,  were  expelled  from  China  by  the  found- 
er of  the  Ming,  or  Chinese  race,  they  sought  a  ref- 
uge among  the  Eastern  Tartars,  and  from  their  in- 
termarriages with  the  natives  sprung  the  Bogdoi 
khans,  or  Manchow  princes,  who  were  destined  to 
expel  the  Ming.  It  is  in  this  manner  that  the  em- 
perors of  the  present  dynasty  derive  their  descent 
from  Koblai  Khan. 

It  was  Tien-ming,  the  lineal  ancestor  of  the  fam- 
ily now  reigning,  who  in  the  time  of  W^anlie  drew 
up  a  paper  containing  seven  subjects  of  grievance, 
on  the  ground  of  which  he  formally  attacked  China, 
with  the  view  of  doing  himself  justice.  He  enter- 
ed the  province  of  Peking  at  the  head  of  50,000 
men,  and  was  preparing  to  besiege  the  capital,  when 
he  was  repulsed,  and  compelled  to  retire  for  a  while 
to  Leaoutung,  north  of  the  great  wall.  His  title 
Tien-ming  literally  means  "  Heaven's  decree."  The 
contest  was  subsequently  resumed,  and  lasted  with 
various  success  until  the  last  emperor  of  Ming  suc- 
ceeded in  1627.  This  prince  seemed  insensible  to 
the  danger  which  threatened  him,  and,  instead  of 
repelling  the  Tartars,  estranged  his  own  subjects 
by  his  ill  conduct,  driving  at  length  a  portion  of 
them  to  revolt.  The  leader  of  the  rebels  subdued 
the  provinces  Honan  and  Shensy,  and  murdered  the 
principal  mandarins ;  but,  in  order  to  gain  their  as- 
sistance, he  freed  the  people  from  all  taxes  and 


THE  MANCHOW  TARTARS.       179 

contributions.  The  success  of  this  policy  soon  en- 
abled him  to  invest  Peking  with  a  very  large  army. 
The  emperor,  preferring  death  to  being  taken  by 
the  rebels,  retired  Math  his  only  daughter,  whom  he 
first  stabbed,  and  then  put  an  end  to  his  own  exist- 
ence with  a  cord,  A.  D.  1643.  Thus  perished  the 
last  Chinese  emperor;  and  the  spot  where  he  died 
was  pointed  out  to  the  late  Sir  George  Staunton  in 
1793.*  The  way  in  which  a  comparatively  small 
nation  of  Tartars  possessed  themselves  of  China 
will  now  appear. 

On  the  death  of  the  emperor,  the  usurper  met 
with  universal  submission,  both  at  Peking  and  in 
the  provinces,  with  the  exception  of  the  general 
Woosankwei,  who  commanded  an  army  near  East- 
ern Tartary.  The  latter  fortified  himself  in  a  city 
which  he  commanded,  and  was  presently  besieged 
by  the  successful  rebel,  who  showed  him  his  father 
in  chains,  threatening  to  put  him  to  death  if  the 
town  was  not  surrendered.  The  father  exhorted 
his  son  to  hold  out,  and  submitted  to  his  fate  ;  upon 
which  Woosankwei,  to  revenge  his  death,  as  well 
as  that  of  the  emperor,  made  peace  with  the  Man- 
chows,  and  called  them  in  to  his  assistance  against 
the  rebels.  The  usurper  was  in  this  manner  soon 
defeated ;  but  the  Tartar  king,  proceeding  to  the  cap- 
ital, was  so  well  received  there,  and  conducted  mat- 
ters with  such  dexterity,  that  he  at  length  found  no 
difficulty  in  taking  upon  himself  the  sovereignty. 
Being  seized  with  a  mortal  sickness,  he  had  time  to 
appoint  his  son  Shunchy,  then  a  boy,  as  his  suc- 
cessor, A.  D.  1644,  and  thus  commenced  the  Man- 
chow  Tartar  dynasty,  of  which  the  sixth  emperor 
is  now  reigning. 

Several  cities  of  the  south  still  held  out  against 
this  foreign  government,  and  particularly  tlie  mari- 
time province  of  Fokien,  which  was  not  subdued 

*  Embassy,  vol.  ii.,  p.  121. 


180  THE  CHINESE. 

until  some  years  afterward.  The  conquered  Chi- 
nese were  now  compelled  to  shave  the  thick  hair, 
which  their  nation  had  been  accustomed  to  wear 
from  the  most  ancient  times  as  a  cherished  orna- 
ment, and  to  betake  themselves  to  the  Tartar  fashion 
of  a  long  platted  tress,  or  tail.  In  other  respects, 
too,  they  were  commanded  to  adopt  the  Tartar  habit 
on  pain  of  death  ;  and  many  are  said  to  liave  died  in 
preference  to  submission.  Their  new  rulers  must, 
indeed,  have  felt  themselves  sufficiently  strong  be- 
fore they  issued  such  an  order.  Many  are  the 
changes  which  may  be  made  in  despotic  countries, 
without  the  notice,  or  even  knowledge,  of  the  larger 
portion  of  the  community ;  but  an  entire  alteration 
in  the  national  costume  affects  every  individual 
equally,  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  and  is  per- 
5,  of  all  others,  the  most  open  and  degrading 


mark  of  conquest.  It  can  never  be  submitted  to 
except  by  a  people  who  are  thoroughly  subdued, 
nor  ever  imposed  except  by  a  government  that  feels 
itself  able  to  cany  a  measure,  which  is  perhaps  re- 
sorted to  principally  for  the  purpose  of  trying,  or 
of  breaking,  the  spirit  of  the  conquered.  The  an- 
cient Chinese  costume  is  now  very  exactly  repre- 
sented on  the  stage  of  their  theatre,  to  which  it  is 
exclusively  confined. 

Such  was  the  repugnance  of  the  Chinese  to  the 
Tartar  rule,  that,  during  the  eighteen  years  of  the 
first  emperor's  reign,  a  portion  of  the  south  remain- 
ed unsubdued,  and  a  very  formidable  opponent  to 
the  new  dynasty  existed  on  the  sea.  This  was 
Ching-she-loong,  father  to  the  maritime  leader  Ko- 
shinga,  whom  we  have  already  had  occasion  to 
mention  as  the  person  who  took  Formosa  from  the 
Dutch.  According  to  the  policy  always  adopted, 
of  effecting  by  compromise  what  cannot  be  accom- 
plished by  force,  Shunchy  offered  him  honours  and 
rewards  at  Peking,  on  condition  that  he  would  sub- 
mit.   The  father  accepted  the  itivitation,  leaving 


KANG-HY.  iSt 

his  fleet  with  his  son,  and  was  well  received ;  but 
Koshinga  remained  true  to  the  Chinese  cause,  and 
subsequently  co-operated  with  the  adherents  to  the 
late  dynasty  on  shore,  committing  great  ravages 
with  his  fleet  along  the  coast.  Kang-hy,  the  sec- 
ond Tartar  emperor,  adopted  the  vigorous  measure 
of  compelling  his  subjects  in  the  six  maritime  prov- 
inces to  retire  thirty  Chinese  It/,  or  three  leagues 
inward  from  the  coast,  on  pain  of  death.  Thus,  at 
the  expense  of  destruction  to  a  number  of  towns 
and  villages,  and  of  loss  to  the  inhabitants,  the 
power  and  resources  of  Koshinga  were  reduced, 
and  his  grandson  was  at  length  prevailed  on  to  give 
up  Formosa  to  the  emperor,  and  accept  the  gift  of 
a  title  for  him.self,  A.  D.  1683. 

The  final  establishment  of  the  Manchow  Tartars 
in  China  is  doubtless  attributable,  in  no  small  meas- 
ure, to  the  personal  cliaracter  of  Kang-hy,  who  was 
perhaps  the  greatest  monarch  that  ever  ruled  the 
country*  and  who  had  the  singular  fortune  to  reign 
for  sixty  years.  By  his  hunting  excursions  beyond 
the  great  wall,  when  he  really  proceeded  at  the 
head  of  a  large  army,  he  kept  up  the  military  char- 
acter of  the  Tartars ;  while  at  the  same  time  his 
vigilant  care  was  not  wanting  in  the  south  During 
the  year  1689,  he  proceeded  along  the  grand  cansl 
to  Nanking,  and  thence  to  the  famous  city  of  Soo- 
chow.  At  that  opulent  and  luxurious  place  it  is 
said  that  carpets  and  silk  stuffs  being  laid  along 
the  streets  by  the  iiihabitants,  the  emperor  dis- 
mounted, and  made  his  train  do  the  same,  proceed- 
ing thus  to  the  palace  on  foot,  in  order  that  the 
people's  property  might  not  be  injured. 

His  liberal  and  enlightened  policy  was  strikingly 
displayed  on  two  occasions  of  foreign  intercourse. 
First,  in  the  boundary  and  comn-iercial  treaty  with 
Russia,  of  which  Pere  Gerbillon  has  given  an  ac- 
count, and  M-hich  was  consequent  on  a  dispute  that 
occurred  at  the  frontier  station  of  Yacsa.     Gerbil- 

VoL.  I.— Q 


182  THE    CHINESE. 

Ion  was  sent  by  Kang-hy  (whose  numerous  favours 
to  the  Catholic  mission  have  already  been  noticed) 
to  assist  the  negotiation  as  translator ;  and  his  detail 
of  the  expedition  is  given  in  the  fourth  volume  of 
Du  Halde.  The  mission  proceeded  in  1688,  but  cir- 
cumstances preveii^ted  its  completion  until  the  fol- 
lowing year;  for  the  Eleuths  or  Kalmucs  being 
then  at  war  with  the  Kalka  Tartars,  and  the  route 
of  the  expedition  lying  along  the  country  of  the  lat- 
ter, it  was  thought  prudent  at  first  to  return.  The 
second  instance  is  that  embassy  in  1713  to  the 
Khan  of  the  Tourgouth  Tartars,  then  settled  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Caspian,  of  which  a  translated 
account  has  been  given  by  the  present  Sir  George 
Staunton  from  the  original  Chinese.  This  is  the 
most  remote  expedition  that  has  ever  been  under- 
taken from  China  in  modern  times  ;  and  the  details 
of  the  journey,  with  the  emperor's  own  instructions 
for  the  conduct  of  his  ambassador,  are  especially 
curious.  Kang-hy  subsequently  gained  considera- 
ble glory  by  the  conquest  of  the  above-mentioned 
Eleuths,  who  had  long  given  great  trouble  in  the 
regions  about  Thibet;  and  the  exploits  and  triumphs 
of  the  emperor's  army  having  been  portrayed  by 
a  French  missionary,  in  a  series  of  skilful  drawings, 
these  were  sent  by  the  desire  of  Kang-hy  to  Paris, 
and  there  engraved  on  copper-plates.  They  con- 
tain a  very  faithful  representation  of  Chinese  and 
Tartar  costumes  and  court  ceremonies,  and  are  by 
far  the  best  things  of  the  kind  in  existence. 

Yoong-ching,  the  immediate  successor  of  this 
great  emperor,  was  remarkable  for  little  else  than 
for  his  violent  persecution  of  the  Catholic  priests, 
who  had  certainly  rendered  themselves  sufficiently 
noxious  by  their  imprudent  conduct  to  the  rulers  of 
China.  Kien-loong,  who  succeeded  in  1736,  and 
who,  like  his  great  predecessor,  Kang-hy,  had  the 
unusual  fortune  to  reign  for  sixty  years,  was  no 
unworthy  inheritor  of  the  fame  and  dominion  of  his 


KIEN-LOONG.  183 

grandfather.  He  encouraged  the  Chinese  learning 
by  cultivating  it  in  his  own  person,  and  some  of  his 
poetical  compositions  are  considered  to  possess 
intrinsic  merit,  independently  of  their  being  the 
productions  of  an  emperor.  The  principal  military 
transaction  of  his  reign,  remarkable  upon  the  whole 
for  its  peaceful  and  prosperous  course,  was  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  Meaou-tse,  the  race  of  moun- 
taineers already  described  on  the  borders  of  Kuei- 
chow,  and  not  far  removed  from  the  Canton  prov- 
ince. The  emperor  boasted  that  they  were  subdued ; 
but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  hardy  peo- 
ple, intrenched  in  the  natural  fortifications  of  their 
rude  and  precipitous  mountains,  lost  little  of  the 
real  independence  which  they  had  enjoyed  for  ages, 
and  that  they  were  "  trhunphati  magis  quam  victim 
They  have  never  submitted  to  the  Tartar  tonsure, 
the  most  conclusive  mark  of  conquest ;  and  their 
renewed  acts  of  hostiUty,  as  late  as  the  year  1832, 
gave  serious  alarm  and  trouble  to  the  Peking  gov- 
ernment. 

The  first  British  embassy  ever  sent  to  China  was 
received  by  Kien-loong  in  1793,  and  the  liberal  con- 
duct of  that  monarch,  in  dispensing  with  the  per- 
formance of  the  prostration  on  the  part  of  Lord 
Macartney,  contrasts  strongly  with  the  petty  spe- 
cies of  trickery  by  which  that  Tartar  act  of  homage, 
called  the  Ko-tow,  was  sought  to  be  extorted  from 
Lord  Amherst  in  1816,  by  his  successor  Kea-king; 
or  rather  by  the  ministers,  for  the  emperor  subse- 
quently disavowed  his  knowledge  of  their  proceed- 
ings. It  has  been  reasonably  supposed  that  Kien- 
loong,  at  the  end  of  a  long  and  prosperous  reign, 
felt  sufficiently  assured  of  his  own  power  and  great- 
ness to  dispense  with  such  a  ceremony ;  and  that 
the  authority  of  his  son  having  been  shaken  by 
frequent  insurrections,  and  even  by  some  attempts 
against  his  life,  this  circumstance  rendered  him,  or 
at  least  liis  court  more  tenacious  of  external  forms. 


184  THE  CHINESE. 

It  has  been  ascertained,  however,  that  the  agency 
of  the  provincial  government  of  Canton  was  pow- 
erfully exerted  against  the  last  embassy. 

When  the  reign  of  Kien-loong,  like  that  of  his 
grandfather,  had  in  1795  reached  the  unusual  term 
of  sixty  years,  which  just  completes  a  revolution  of 
the  Chinese  cycle,  he  resigned  the  throne  to  his 
son,  with  the  title  of  emperor,  while  he  reserved  to 
himself  that  of  the  supreme  emperor,  though  he  re- 
tired altogether  from  state  affairs,  and  lived  but  a 
short  time  afterward.  Kea-king  was  ill  calculated 
to  maintain  the  imperial  dignity  after  such  a  mon- 
arch as  his  father.  Serra,  a  Catholic  missionary, 
many  years  employed  at  Peking,  obtained  a  very 
particular  account  of  his  habits,  which  were  ex- 
tremely profligate,  and  may  account  for  the  risks 
to  which  his  life  was  exposed  from  assassins.  Af- 
ter the  early  morning  audience,  from  which  no  em- 
peror can  excuse  himself,  and  having  despatched  the 
business  submitted  to  him,  he  generally  retired  to 
the  company  of  players,  and  afterward  drank  to 
excess.  He  would  frequently  proceed  with  play- 
ers to  the  interior  of  the  palace,  and  it  was  remarked 
that  his  two  younger  sons  bore  no  resemblance  to 
liimself  or  to  each  other.  He  w^ent  so  far  as  to 
carry  the  comedians  with  him  when  he  proceeded 
to  sacrifice  at  the  temples  of  Heaven  and  Earth. 
This,  with  other  circumstances,  was  noticed  in  a 
memorial  by  the  famous  Soong-fceun,  or  Soong-ta- 
jin,  one  of  the  censors,  and  the  conductor  and 
friend  of  Lord  Macartney  while  in  China.  When 
summoned  by  the  emperor,  and  asked  what  pun- 
ishment he  deserved,  he  answered,  "  A  slow  and 
ignominious  death."  When  told  to  choose  another, 
he  said,  "  beheading ;"  and,  on  a  third  occasion,  he 
chose  "strangling."*  He  was  ordered  to  retire, 
and  on  the  following  day  the  court  appointed  him 

*  The  three  gradations  of  capital  punishment. 


THE   LAST  WILL  OF  KEA-KING.  185 

governor  of  the  Chinese  Siberia,  the  region  of  Tar- 
tary  to  which  criminals  are  exiled  ;  thus  (as  vSerra 
observes)  acknowledging  his  rectitude,  though  una- 
ble to  bear  his  censure. 

When  the  reign  of  Kea-king,  unmarked  by  any 
events  except  the  suppression  of  some  formidable 
revolts  and  conspiracies,  had  reached  the  twenty- 
fourth  year,  the  occurrence  of  the  sixtieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  emperor's  age  was  celebrated  by  a  uni- 
versal jubilee  throughout  the  empire.  Even  with 
private  individuals,  the  attainment  of  the  sixtieth 
year  (a  revolution  of  the  cycle)  is  marked  by  a  par- 
ticular celebration.  In  1819  the  national  jubilee 
was  observed,  as  usual,  by  a  remission  of  all  arrears 
of  land-tax ;  by  a  general  pardon  or  mitigation  of 
punishment  to  criminals ;  and  by  the  admission  of 
double  the  usual  number  of  candidates  to  degrees  at 
the  public  examinations.  The  celebration  of  one 
man's  age  by  two  or  three  hundred  millions  of  peo- 
ple is  rather  an  imposing  festival,  and  could  happen 
to  none  but  the  Emperor  of  China.  Kea-king,  how- 
ever, only  survived  it  by  a  single  year;  and  his 
death,  in  1820,  v/as  the  occasion  of  some  curious 
information  being  obtained  relative  to  the  mode  of 
succession,  and  other^particulars. 

The  emperor's  will,  a  very  singular  document, 
was  published  to  the  people.  In  it  was  this  pas- 
sage : — "  The  Yellow  river  has,  from  the  remotest 
ages,  been  China's  sorrow.  Whenever  the  mouth 
of  the  stream  has  been  impeded  by  sand-banks,  it 
has,  higher  up  its  course,  created  alarm  by  over- 
flowing the  country.  On  such  occasions  I  have 
not  spared  the  imperial  treasury  to  embank  the 
river,  and  restore  the  waters  to  their  former  chan- 
nel. Since  a  former  repair  of  the  river  was  com- 
pleted six  or  seven  years  of  tranquillity  had  elapsed, 
when  last  year,  in  the  autumn,  the  excessive  rains 
caused  an  unusual  rise  of  the  water,  and  in  Honaii 
the  river  burst  its  banks  at  several  points,  both  oa 
Qs 


186  THE    CHINESE. 

the  south  and  north  sides.  The  stream  Woo-chy 
forced  a  passage  to  the  sea,  and  the  mischief  done 
was  immense.  During  the  spring  of  this  year,  just 
as  those  who  conducted  the  repair  of  the  banks  had 
reported  that  the  work  was  finished,  the  southern 
bank  at  Ee-foong  again  gave  way."  The  mention 
of  this  subject  in  the  emperor's  will  is  a  sufficient 
proof  of  its  importance  If  the  science  of  European 
engineers  could  put  an  effectual  stop  to  the  evil,  it 
would  be  the  most  important  physical  benefit  that 
was  ever  conferred  on  the  empire  ;  but  the  illiberal 
jealousy  of  China  is  not  likely  to  let  the  experi- 
ment be  very  soon  tried.  Even  the  European  trade 
at  Canton  is  annually  taxed  to  meet  the  repairs  of 
the  Yellow  river. 

The  emperor's  will  proceeds  to  state  the  mer- 
its of  his  second  son,  the  present  sovereign,  Taou- 
kuang,  in  having  shot  two  of  the  assassins  who 
entered  the  palace  in  1813,  which  was  the  rea- 
son of  his  selection.  It  has  been  even  supposed 
that  Kea-king's  death  was  hastened  by  some  dis- 
contented person  of  high  rank,  who  had  been  lately 
disgraced  in  consequence  of  the  mysterious  loss  of 
an  ofiicial  seal.  The  emperor's  death  was  an- 
nounced to  the  several  provinces  by  despatches 
written  with  blue  ink,  the  mourning  colour.  All 
persons  of  condition  were  required  to  take  the  red 
silk  ornament  from  their  caps,  with  the  ball  or  but- 
ton of  rank :  all  subjects  of  China,  without  excep- 
tion, were  called  upon  to  forbear  from  shaving  their 
heads  for  one  hundred  days,  within  w^hich  period 
none  might  marry,  or  play  on  musical  instruments, 
or  perform  any  sacrifice. 

The  personal  character  of  the  present  emperor 
is  much  better  than  that  of  his  father,  but  the  lofty 
title  which  he  chose  for  his  reign,  Taou-kiidng,  "  the 
glory  of  reason,"  has  hardly  been  supported.  The 
most  disgraceful  act  of  his  administration  was  the 
murder,  in  1828,  of  the  Mahometan  Tartar  prince 


PRESENT    EMPEROR.  189 

Jehanghir,  who  had  surrendered  himself  in  reliance 
on  the  faith  of  promises.  It  is  supposed,  indeed, 
that  the  reductioji  of  those  tribes  towards  Cashgar, 
effected  by  the  aid  of  the  Mongol  Tartars  that  in- 
tervene, was  marked  by  more  than  the  usual  share 
of  Chinese  treachery  and  craft.  This  war  was  a 
source  of  serious  anxiety  and  expense  to  the  empe- 
ror, whose  reign  has  been  infested  by  a  continual 
succession  of  public  c  iiniriities,  and  by  more  revolts 
and  insurrections  than  tiave  been  known  since  the 
time  of  the  first  emperoi-  of  the  Manchow  dynasty. 
Subsequent  to  the  termination  of  the  troubles  with 
the  independent  mountaineers  northwest  of  Canton, 
wliich  has  been  mentioned  in  another  chapter,  a 
very  singular  paper  was  written  by  a  Chinese, 
stating  the  submission  of  the  enemy  to  be  a  mere 
imposition  on  the  emperor  by  his  officers,  and  a 
public  disgrace.  He  said  that  the  imperial  com- 
missioners had  expended  500,000  taels  of  silver  for 
a  sham  surrender  and  the  appearance  of  victory, 
and  wondered  at  their  audacity  in  receiving  the  re- 
wards of  peacocks'  feathers  and  other  marks  of 
favour.  The  money  was  represented  to  have  been 
thrown  away,  for  the  mountaineers  had  disowned 
the  authority  of  those  who  accepted  it,  and  remain- 
ed as  independent  as  ever. 

There  must  be  a  good  deal  of  truth  in  this,  or  a 
Cliinese  would  hardly  have  exposed  himself  to  the 
risk  of  being  the  author ;  and  it  is  a  singular  picture 
of  the  existing  state  of  the  empire.  Many  have 
been  led  by  the  events  of  recent  years  to  surmise 
that  the  end  of  the  Tartar  dominion  in  China  is  at 
hand ;  its  establishment  and  continuance  are  cer- 
tainly facts  not  much  less  extraordinary  (when  the 
disproportion  of  the  conquerors  to  the  conquered  is 
considered)  than  the  British  dominion  in  India; 
and  the  Mongol  race  were  driven  out  by  the  Chi- 
nese after  a  much  shorter  possession  than  the  Man- 
chows  have  already  enjoyed.     These  have  had  the 


190  THE  CHINESE. 

prudence  and  wisdom  to  leave  the  Chinese  in  pos- 
session of  their  own  forms  and  institutions  in  most 
instances,  and  to  mould  those  of  the  Tartars  to 
them  ;  but  distinctions  sufficiently  broad  are  still 
maintained  to  prevent  the  amalgamation  of  the  ori- 
ginal people  with  their  masters.  A  symptom  of 
weakness  in  the  government  is  its  extreme  dread  of 
numerous  associations  among  the  people ;  one  of 
which,  the  Triad  Society,  has  for  its  knovni  object 
the  expulsion  of  the  Manchows. 

An  insurrection  broke  out  in  the  Island  of  For- 
mosa towards  the  close  of  1832,  accompanied  by 
the  death  of  a  large  portion  of  the  troops,  and  of 
the  greater  number  of  mandarins  on  the  spot,  and 
the  origin  of  it  was  attributed  to  the  oppression  of 
the  emperor's  government.  A  Tartar  general,  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  months,  was  despatched  in  all 
haste  from  Peking,  with  power,  to  take  troops  from 
the  different  provinces  at  his  need,  and  in  a  short 
time  it  was  heard  that  the  insurrection  was  over, 
and  the  troops  countermanded.  This  sudden  resto- 
ration of  tranquillity  was  hardly  less  surprising, 
after  violence  had  proceeded  to  such  lengths,  than 
the  speedy  submission  of  the  mountaineers  ;  but  it 
was  never  clearly  ascertained  whether  it  was  ef- 
fected by  force,  or  by  the  divisions  of  the  inhabi- 
tants ;  or  whether  money  had  been  used,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  mountaineers,  to  supply  the  place  of 
arms. 

The  last  emperor,  Kea-king,  showed  a  very  de- 
termined aversion  and  hostility  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic religion,  and  numerous  persecutions  took  place 
in  his  reign.  The  present  monarch,  by  all  appear- 
ances, inherited  the  same  disposition  from  his  fa- 
ther. He  had  not  succeeded  many  weeks  to  the 
throne,  when  one  of  his  high  officers  evinced  his 
zeal  by  an  accusation  against  certain  Chinese  who 
had  been  detected  in  the  practice  of  what  is  called 
the  "  religion  of  the  western  ocean."    A  still  more 


EXPULSION  OF  MISSIONARIES.  191 

unequivocal  proof  exists  in  the  expulsion  from  Pe- 
king of  the  very  last  of  those  European  missiona- 
ries who,  for  their  astronomical  knowledge,  had 
been  attached  in  succession,  for  about  200  years,  to 
that  tribunal  or  board  whose  business  it  is  to  ob- 
serve the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  to 
construct  the  imperial  calendar.  It  is  probable  that 
the  present  Chinese  astronomers  have  acquired 
sufficient  practical  knowledge  for  the  rough  calcu- 
lation of  eclipses,  and  other  routine  matters  of  the 
same  kind :  but  in  the  course  of  time  another  gen- 
eration may  perhaps  require  a  fresh  inoculation  of 
science  from  Europe,  and  it  will  then  befit  Protest- 
ant missionaries  to  imitate  the  learning  and  enter: 
prise  of  their  Catholic  predecessors, — but  to  avoid 
their  want  of  moderation,  and  their  disputes  with 
each  other  about  trifles. 


192  THE    CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

GOVERNMENT  AND   LEGISLATION. 

Paternal  Authority  the  principle  of  Chinese  Rule. — Malversa- 
tions at  Canton,  in  some  degree  an  exception  to  the  Empire 
at  large. — Despotism  tempered  by  influence  of  Public  Opin- 
ion.—Motives  to  Education.— Reverence  for  Age. — Wealth 
has  Influence,  but  is  little  respected. — Real  Aristocracy  offi- 
cial, and  not  hereditary. — The  Emperor — is  High  Priest. — 
Ministers. — ?/Iachiner)'  of  Government. — Checks  on  Magis- 
trates.— Civil  Officers  superior  to  Military. — Low  art  of  War. 
— Guns  cast  by  Missionaries. — Penal  Code  of  China. — Merits 
and  Defects. — Arrangement. — Punishments. — Privileges  and 
Exemptions.  —  Crimes.  —  Character  of  Code.  —  Testimonies, 
foreign  and  domestic,  in  favour  of  its  practical  results. —  Chi 
nese  recognise  sanctions  superior  to  absolute  will  of  Emperor. 

Montesquieu  has  somewhere  the  following  re- 
mark : — "  Reureux  le  peuple  dont  Vhisioire  est  ennuy- 
euse ;"  and,  if  this  be  the  characteristic  of  Chinese 
history,  if  we  find  the  even  current  of  its  annals  for 
a  long  time  past  less  troubled  by  disorder  and  anar- 
chy than  can  be  stated  of  most  other  countries,  we 
must  look  for  the  causes  in  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  its  government,  and  in  the  maxims  by  which 
this  is  administered.  It  is  Avell  known  that  parental 
authoritrj  is  the  model  or  type  of  political  rule  in 
China — that  natural  restraint  to  which  almost  every 
man  finds  himself  subject  at  the  earliest  dawn  of 
his  perceptions.  Influenced,  perhaps,  by  a  consid- 
eration of  the  lasting  force  of  early  impressions  on 
the  human  mind,  the  legislators  of  the  C'">untry 
have  thought  that  they  should  best  provide  for  the 
stability  of  their  fabric  by  basing  it  on  that  princi- 
ple which  is  the  most  natural  and  familiar  to  every 


PATERNAL  AUTHORITY.  193 

one  from  infancy,  and  the  least  likely  ever  to  be 
called  in  question. 

Whether  or  not  this  was  the  ffpsign  with  which 
the  patriarchal  form  has  been  so  long  perpetuated 
in  China,  it  seems  certain  that,  being  at  once  the 
most  obvious  and  the  simplest,  it  has  for  that  reason 
been  the  first  that  has  existed  among  the  various 
societies  of  mankind.  The  North  American  tribes 
call  all  rulers  "fathers."  However  well  calculated 
to  promote  the  union  and  welfare  of  small  tribes  or 
nations,  the  example  of  China,  perhaps,  in  some 
respects,  demonstrates  that  in  large  empires,  where 
the  supreme  authority  must  be  exercised  almost  en- 
tirely by  distant  delegation,  it  is  liable  to  degenerate 
into  a  mere  fiction,  excellently  calculated  to  strength- 
en and  perpetuate  the  hand  of  despotism,  but  retain- 
ing little  of  the  paternal  character  beyond  its  abso- 
lute authority.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment to  grant  to  fathers  over  their  children  the 
patria  volestas  in  full  force,  as  the  example  and  the 
sanction  of  its  own  power. 

There  is  nothing  more  remarkable  in  their  ritual 
and  in  their  criminal  code,  than  the  exact  parallel 
which  is  studiously  kept  up  between  the  relations 
in  which  every  person  stands  to  his  own  parents 
and  to  the  emperor.  For  similar  offences  against 
both,  he  suffers  similar  punishments ;  at  the  death 
of  both  he  mourns  the  same  time,  and  goes  the 
same  period  unshaven;  and  both  possess  nearly  the 
same  power  over  his  person.  Thus  he  is  bred  up 
to  civil  obedience,  "  tenero  ab  ungui,'^  Avith  every 
chance  of  proving  a  quiet  subject  at  least.  Such  in- 
stitutions certainly  do  not  denote  the  existence  of 
much  liberty ;  but  if  peaceful  obedience  and  univer- 
sal order  be  the  sole  objects  in  view,  they  argue, 
on  the  part  of  the  governors,  some  knowledge  of 
human  nature,  and  an  adaptation  of  the  means  to 
the  end. 

In  the  book  of  Sacred  Instructions,  addressed  to 

Vol.  L— R 


194  THE    CHINESE. 

the  people,  founded  on  their  ancient  writings,  and 
read  publicly  by  the  principal  magistrates  on  the 
days  that  correspond  to  the  new  and  full  moon,  the 
sixteen  discourses  of  which  it  consists  are  headed 
by  that  which  teaches  the  duties  of  children  to  pa- 
rents, of  juniors  to  elders,  and  (thence)  of  the  peo- 
ple to  the  government.  The  principle  is  extended 
thus  in  a  quotation  from  the  sacred  books  : — "  In 
our  general  conduct,  not  to  be  orderly  is  to  fail  in 
fihal  duty ;  in  serving  our  sovereign,  not  to  be  faith- 
ful is  to  fail  in  filial  duty ;  in  acting  as  a  magistrate, 
not  to  be  careful  is  to  fail  in  filial  duty ;  in  the  in- 
tercourse of  friends,  not  to  be  sincere  is  to  fail  in 
filial  duty ;  in  arms  and  in  war,  not  to  be  brave  is 
to  fail  in  filial  duty."  The  claims  of  elders  are  en- 
forced thus  : — "  The  duty  to  parents  and  the  duty  to 
elders  are  indeed  similar  in  obligation  ;  for  he  who 
can  be  a  pious  son  will  also  prove  an  obedient 
younger  brother ;  and  he  who  is  both  will,  while  at 
home,  prove  an  honest  and  orderly  subject,  and  in 
active  service,  from  home,  a  courageous  and  faith- 
ful soldier.  .  .  .  May  you  all,  0  soldiers  and  people, 
conform  to  these  our  instructions,  evincing  your 
good  dispositions  by  your  conduct  and  actions,  each 
fulfilling  his  duty  as  a  son  and  a  junior,  according 
to  the  example  which  is  left  you  by  the  wise  and 
holy  men  of  former  times.  The  wisdom  of  the  an- 
cient emperors,  Yaou  and  Shun,  had  its  foundation 
in  these  essential  ties  of  human  society.  IMencius 
has  said,  'Were  all  men  to  honour  their  kindred 
and  respect  their  elders,  the  world  would  be  at 
peace.'  " 

But  the  government  does  not  confine  itself  to 
preaching;  domestic  rebellion  is  treated  in  nearly 
all  respects  as  treason ;  being  in  fact  petit  treason. 
A  special  edict  of  the  last  emperor  went  beyond  the 
established  law  in  a  case  which  occurred  in  one  of 
the  central  provinces.  A  man  and  his  wife  had 
beaten  and  otherwise  severely  ill-used  the  mother 


SACRED  INSTRUCTIONS.  195 

of  the  former.  This  bemg  reported  by  the  viceroy 
to  Peking,  it  was  determined  to  enforce  in  a  signal 
manner  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  empire. 
The  very  place  where  it  occurred  was  anathema- 
tized, as  it  were,  and  made  accursed.  The  principal 
offenders  were  put  to  death ;  the  mother  of  the  wife 
was  bambooed,  branded,  and  exiled  for  her  daugh- 
ter's crime;  the  scholars  of  the  district  for  three 
years  were  not  permitted  to  attend  the  public  ex- 
amination, and  their  promotion  thereby  stopped ; 
the  magistrates  were  deprived  of  their  office  and 
banished.  The  house  in  which  the  offenders  dwelt 
was  dug  up  from  the  foundations.  "  Let  the  vice- 
roy," the  edict  adds,  "  make  known  this  proclama- 
tion, and  let  it  be  dispersed  through  the  whole  em- 
pire, that  the  people  may  all  learn  it.  And  if  there 
be  any  rebellious  children  who  oppose,  beat,  or  de- 
grade their  parents,  they  shall  be  punished  in  like 
manner.  If  ye  people,  indeed  know  the  renovating 
principle,  then  fear  and  obey  the  imperial  will,  nor 
look  on  this  as  empty  declamation.  For  now,  ac- 
cording to  this  case  of  Teng-chen,  wherever  there 
are  the  hke  I  resolve  to  condemn  them,  and  from 
my  heart  strictly  charge  you  to  beware.  I  instruct 
the  magistrates  of  every  province  severely  to  warn 
the  heads  of  families  and  elders  of  villages ;  and 
on  the  2d  and  16th  of  every  month  to  read  the  Sa- 
cred Instructions,  in  order  to  show  the  importance 
of  the  relations  of  life,  that  persons  may  not  rebel 
against  their  parents— /or  /  intend  to  render  the  em- 
<jpirejiliaiy  This  was  addressed  to  a  population  es- 
timated commonly  at  300,000,000. 

"  The  vital  and  universally  operating  principle  of 
the  Chinese  government,"  says  Sir  George  Staun- 
ton, "  is  the  duty  of  submission  to  parental  author- 
ity, whether  vested  in  the  parents  themselves,  or 
in  their  representatives ;  and  this,  although  usually 
described  under  the  pleasing  appellation  of  filial 
piety,  is  much  more  properly  to  be  considered  as  a 


196  THE  CHINESE. 

general  rule  of  action  than  as  the  expression  of  any 
particular  sentiment  of  affection.  It  may  easily  be 
traced  even  in  the  earliest  of  their  records ;  it  is 
inculcated  with  the  greatest  force  in  the  writings  of 
the  first  of  their  pliilosophers  and  legislators;  it  has 
survived  each  successive  dynasty,  and  all  the  vari- 
ous changes  and  revolutions  which  the  state  has 
undergone  ;  and  it  continues  to  this  day  powerfully 
enforced  both  by  positive  laws  and  by  public  opinion. 
"A  government  constituted  upon  the  basis  of  pa- 
rental authority,  thus  highly  estimated  and  exten- 
sively applied,  has  certainly  the  advantage  of  u  jing 
directly  sanctioned  by  the  immutable  and  ever- 
operating  laws  of  nature,  and  must  thereby  acquire 
a  degree  of  firmness  and  durability  to  which  gov- 
ernments, founded  on  the  fortuitous  superiority  of 
particular  individuals,  either  in  strength  or  abilities, 
and  continued  only  through  the  hereditary  inlluence 
of  particular  families,  can  never  be  expected  to  at- 
tain. Parental  authority  and  prerogative  seem  to 
be,  ob\niously,  the  most  respectable  of  titles,  and 
parental  regard  and  affection  the  most  amiable  of 
characters,  with  which  sovereign  and  magisterial 
power  can  be  invested ;  and  are  those  under  which 
it  is  natural  to  suppose  it  may  most  easily  be  per- 
petuated. By  such  principles  the  Chinese  have  been 
distinguished  ever  since  their  first  existence  as  a 
nation ;  by  such  ties  the  vast  and  increasing  popu- 
lation of  China  is  still  united  as  one  people,  subject 
to  one  supreme  government,  and  uniform  in  its  hab- 
its, manners,  and  language.  In  this  state,  in  spite 
of  every  internal  and  external  convulsion,  it  may 
possibly  very  long  continue." 

It  is  the  business  of  the  first  of  the  "  Four  Books" 
of  Confucius  to  inculcate,  that  from  the  knowledge 
and  government  of  ojie's  self  must  proceed  the  prop- 
er economy  and  government  of  a  family ;  from  the 
government  of  a  family,  that  of  a  province  and  of  a 
kingdom.     The  emperor  is  called  the  father  of  the 


MAXIMS  OF  GOVERNMENT.  197 

empire;  the  viceroy,  of  the  province  over  which 
he  presides  ;  and  the  mandarin,  of  the  city  which  he 
governs ;  and  the  father  of  every  family  is  the  ab- 
sohite  and  responsible  ruler  of  his  own  household. 
Social  peace  and  order  being  deemed  the  one  thing 
needful,  this  object  is  very  steadily  and  consistently 
pursued.  The  system  derives  some  of  its  efficacy 
from  the  hahitual  and  universal  inculcation  of  obe- 
dience and  deference,  in  unbroken  series,  from  one 
end  of  society  to  the  other ;  beginning  in  the  rela- 
tion of  children  to  their  parents,  continuing  through 
that  of  the  young  to  the  aged,  of  the  uneducated  to 
the  educated,  and  terminating  in  that  of  the  people 
to  their  rulers. 

The  great  wealth  of  the  empire,  the  cheerful  and 
indefatigable  industiy  of  the  people,  and  their  un- 
conquerable attachment  to  their  country,  are  all  of 
them  circumstances  which  prove,  that,  if  the  gov- 
ernment is  jealous  in  guarding  its  rights,  it  is  not  al- 
together ignorant  or  unmindful  of  its  duties.  We 
are  no  unqualified  admirers  of  the  Chinese  system, 
but  would  willingly  explain,  if  possible,  some  of  the 
causes  which  tend  to  the  production  of  results  whose 
existence  nobody  pretends  to  deny.  In  practice 
there  is  of  course  a  great  deal  of  inevitable  abuse ; 
but  upon  the  whole,  and  with  relation  to  ultimate 
effects,  the  machine  works  well :  and  we  repeat 
that  the  surest  proofs  of  this  are  apparent  on  the 
very  face  of  the  most  cheerfully  industrious  and 
orderly,  and  the  most  wealthy,  nation "of  Asia.  It 
maybe  observed  that  we  make  great  account  of  the 
circumstance  of  cheerful  industry;  because  this 
characteristic,  which  is  the  first  to  strike  all  visiters 
of  China,  is  the  best  proof  in  the  world  that  the 
people  possess  their  full  share  of  the  results  of  their 
own  labour.  Men  do  not  toil  either  willingly  or  ef- 
fectively for  hard  masters. 

It  would  be  a  very  rash  conclusion  to  form  any 
estimate  of  the   insecuritv   of  propertv  generally 
R2 


198  THE    CHINESE. 

from  what  is  observed  at  Canton  among  those  con- 
nected with  the  foreign  trade,  and  especially  the 
Hong  merchants.  These  persons  are  instruments 
in  the  hands  of  a  cautious  government,  which,  not 
wishing  to  come  into  immediate  collision  with  for- 
eigners, uses  them  in  the  manner  of  a  sponge,  that, 
alter  being  allowed  to  absorb  the  gains  of  a  licensed 
monopoly,  is  made  regularly  to  yield  up  its  contents, 
by  what  is  very,  correctly  termed  "  squeezing."  The 
rulers  of  China  consider  foreigners  fair  game  :  they 
have  no  sympathy  with  them,  and,  what  is  more, 
they  diligently  and  systematically  labour  to  destroy 
all  sympathy  on  the  part  of  their  subjects,  by  rep- 
resenting the  strangers  to  them  in  every  light  that 
is  the  most  contemptible  and  odious.  There  is  an 
annual  edict  or  proclamation  displayed  at  Canton 
at  the  commencement  of  the  commercial  season, 
accusing  the  foreigners  of  the  most  horrible  prac- 
tices, and  desiring  the  people  to  have  as  little  to 
say  to  them  as  possible.  We  have  already  seen 
that  the  professed  rule  is  to  govern  them'  "like 
beasts,"  and  not  as  the  subjects  of  Hhe  empire. 
With  perfect  consistency,  therefore,  they  are  denied 
the  equal  benefits  and  protection  of  the  known  laws 
of  the  country,  condemned  to  death  for  accidental 
homicide,  and  executed  without  the  emperor's  war- 
rant. These  are  their  real  subjects  of  complaint  in 
China ;  and  whenever  the  accumulation  of  wrong 
shall  have  proved,  by  exact  calculation,  that  it  is 
more  profitable,  according  to  merely  commercial 
principles,  to  remonstrate  than  to  submit,  these  will 
form  a  righteous  and  equitable  ground  of  quarrel. 

But  to  return  to  the  Hong  merchants  and  others 
at  Canton:  there  is  in  fact,  a  set  of  laws  existing 
under  this  jealous  Tartar  government,  which  makes 
all  transactions  of  Chinese  with  foreigners,  without 
an  express  license,  traitorous — that  is  the  word — 
and  it  forms  a  terrible  engine  of  extortion ;  for  the 
construction  of  the  terms  of  the  license,  as  well  as 


ANOMALIES  OF  DESPOTITM.  199 

of  the  particular  regulations  from  time  to  time  enact- 
ed, opens  a  wide  field  for  injustice  under  the  forms 
of  law.  This  is  the  only  solution  of  the  anomaly, 
that  at  Canton,  in  a  country  where  there  is  a  writ- 
ten code  with  numerous  provisions  against  extor- 
tion and  oppression,  and  with  severe  denunciations 
against  the  abuse  of  power,  there  is  still  so  much 
of  the  evil  apparently  existing.  But  it  is  the  for- 
eigner that  pays,  after  all;  the  Hong  merchants  are 
the  veri tables  vaches  a  lait,  the  real  milch  cows,  but 
the  foreign  trade  is  the  pasture  in  which  they  range. 
One  of  the  ablest  of  their  body  many  years  since 
obtained  the  express  authority  of  the  local  govern- 
ment for  tlie  Consoo,  or  body  of  Hong  merchants, 
to  levy  charges  at  its  own  discretion  on  the  foreign 
trade,  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  paying  the  de- 
mands of  the  mandarins.  Other  annual  charges 
were  levied  to  defray  debts  of  individual  merchants 
to  foreigners,  and,  the  debts  being  liquidated,  the 
charges  are  continned.  But  for  these  abuses,  the 
fair  trade  of  Canton  would  be  much  more  profitable 
than  it  is ;  and  if  they  increase,  it  will  die  a  natural 
death. 

The  same  system  cannot  by  any  means  be  prac- 
tised where  natives  ordy  are  concerned;  and,  if  it 
could,  the  country  would  present  a  very  different 
appearance,  ^extraordinary  wealth  is  of  course  ex- 
posed \.o  <km\ger,  fcriimtque  swmnos  fuhnina  mantes, 
or,  as  the  Chinese  express  it,  "  the  elephant  is  killed 
on  accouut  pf  his  ivory."  But  they  have  another 
saying,  that  "  happiness  consists  in  a  level  or  medi- 
um station ;"  and  it  is  certain  that  the  bulk  of  the 
native  population  enjoys  the  results  of  its  industry 
with  a  very  fair  degree  of  security,  or  it  would  not 
be  so  industrious.  ■ 

There  are  some  curious  piractical  anomalies  which 
one  is  not  prepared  to  find  under  a  despotism.  The 
people  sometimes  hold  public  meetings  by  adver- 
tisement, for  the  express  purpose  of  addressing  the 


200  THE    CHINESE. 

magistrate,  and  this  without  being  punished.  The 
influence  of  pubhc  opinion  seems  indicated  by  this 
practice ;  together  with  that  frequent  custom  of 
placarding  and  lampooning  (though  of  course  anony- 
mously) noxious  officers.  Honours  are  rendered 
to  a  just  magistrate,  and  addresses  presented  to  him 
on  his  departure  by  the  people ;  testimonies  which 
are  highly  valued.  These  must  be  ranked  with  the 
exceptions  to  the  theories  of  governments,  of  which 
Hume  treats  when  he  mentions,  among  other  in- 
stances, the  impressment  of  seamen  in  England; 
which  is  a  departure  from  liberty,  as  the  cases 
above  mentioned  are  from  despotism.  It  may  be 
added,  that  there  is  no  established  censorship  of  the 
press  in  China,  nor  any  limitations  but  those  which 
the  interests  of  social  peace  and  order  seem  to  ren- 
der necessary.  If  these  are  endangered,  the  pro- 
cess of  the  government  is  of  course  more  summary 
than  even  an  information  filed  by  the  attorney- 
general. 

It  is  deserving  of  remark,  that  the  general  pros- 
perity and  peace  of  China  have  been  very  much 
promoted  by  the  diifusion  of  intelligence  and  ed- 
ucation through  the  lower  classes.  Among  the 
countless  millions  that  constitute  the  empire,  almost 
every  man  can  read  and  write  sufficiently  for  the 
ordinary  purposes  of  life,  and  a  respectable  share 
of  these  acquirements  goes  low  down  in  the  scale 
of  society.  Of  the  sixteen  discourses  which  are 
periodically  read  to  the  people,  the  eighth  incul- 
cates the  necessity  of  a  general  acquaintance  with 
the  penal  laws,  which  are  printed  purposely  in  a 
cheap  form.  They  argue,  that  as  men  cannot 
properly  be  punished  for  what  they  do  not  know, 
so  likewise  they  Avill  be  less  liable  to  incur  the 
penalty  if  they  are  made  duly  acquainted  with  the 
prohibition.  This  seems  a  very  necessary  branch 
of  what  has  been  called  ^^  preventive  justice,  upon 
every  principle  of  reason,  of  humanity,  and  of  sound 


PEACEFUL    CHARACTER.  201 

policy,  preferable  in  all  respects  to  pnmshini^  jus- 
tice."* 

The  general  diffusion  of  education  must  be  attrib- 
uted to  the  influence  of  ahnost  every  motive  of  fear 
or  hope  tiiat  can  operate  on  the  human  mind;  it  is 
inculcated  by  positive  precepts,  and  encouraged  by 
an  open  competition  for  the  highest  rewards.  One 
of  the  strongest  motives  to  every  Chinese  to  edu- 
cate his  sons  nuist  be  the  consciousness  that  he  is 
liable  to  punishment  for  their  crimes  at  any  period 
of  their  lives,  as  well  as  to  reward  for  their  Jiierits : 
parents  are  often  promoted  by  the  acts  of  their  sons 
Montesquieu,  in  violently  condemning  the  liability 
to  punishment,!  seems  to  have  been  unaware,  or 
unmindful,  that  it  is  in  some  measure  the  result  of 
that  absolute  power  which  is  through  life  intrusted 
to  the  father:  and  that  such  a  trust,  with  some  show 
of  reason,  carries  with  it  a  proportionate  responsi- 
bility. He  is  not  only  punished,  but  rewarded  too, 
according  as  he  has  administered  this  trust.  How 
such  a  system  must  operate  as  a  motive  to  educa- 
tion, is  sufliciently  obvious  ;  and  the  only  question 
is,  whether  the  amount  of  pei*sonal  liberty  sacri- 
ficed is  balanced  by  the  amount  of  public  benefit 
gained.  So  sensible  are  they  of  the  importance  of 
education,  that  the  language  is  full  of  domestic  or 
of  state  maxims  in  reference  to  it.  "  Bend  the 
mulberry-tree  when  it  is  young." — "  Without  educa- 
tion in  families,  how  are  governors  for  the  people 
to  be  obtained  ?" — and  so  on.  Every  town  has  its 
public  place  of  instruction,  and  wealthy  families 
have  private  tutors. 

As  regards  the  peaceful  and  orderly  character  by 
which  the  Chinese,  as  a  nation,  are  disti!)guished, 
there  is  much  truth  in  another  remark  of  Montes- 
quieu, namely,  that  the  government  had  this  object 
in  view  when  it  prescribed  a  certain  code  of  cere- 

♦  Blackstone,  b.  iv.,  c.  18.  t  Book  vi.,  c.  20. 


202  THE    CHINESE. 

monies  and  behaviour  to  its  subjects ;  "  a  very 
proper  method  of  inspiring  mild  and  gentle  disposi- 
tions, of  maintaining  peace  and  good  order,  and  of 
banishing  all  the  vices  which  spring  from  an  as- 
perity of  temper."  They  certainly  are,  upon  the 
whole,  among  the  most  good-humoured  people  in 
the  world,  and  the  most  peaceable ;  and  the  chief 
causes  of  this  must  be  sought  for  in  their  political 
and  social  institutions.  Of  the  sixteen  lectures  pe- 
riodically delivered  to  the  people,  the  second  is  "  on 
union  and  concord  among  kindred  ;"  the  third,  "  on 
concord  and  agreement  among  neighbours ;"  the 
ninth,  "  on  mutual  forbearance ;"  the  sixteenth,  "  on 
reconciling  animosities."  Here  perhaps  we  may 
perceive  also  the  sources  of  their  characteristic 
timidity,  which  is  accompanied  by  its  natural  asso- 
ciate, the  disposition  to  cunning  and  fraud. 

The  Chinese  have  lived  so  much  in  peace,  that 
they  have  acquired  by  habit  and  education  a  more 
than  common  horror  of  political  disorder.  "  Better 
be  a  dog  in  peace  than  a  man  in  anarchy,"  is  a 
common  maxim.  "  It  is  a  general  rule,"  they  say, 
"  that  the  worst  of  men  are  fondest  of  change  and 
commotion,  hoping  that  they  may  thereby  benefit 
themselves ;  but  by  adherence  to  a  steady,  quiet 
system,  affairs  proceed  without  confusion,  and  bad 
men  have  nothing  to  gain."  They  are,  in  short,  a 
nation  of  incurable  conservatives.  At  the  same  time, 
that  only  check  of  Asiatic  despotism — the  endu- 
rance of  the  people — appears  from  their  history  to 
.have  exercised  a  salutary  influence.  The  first  em- 
peror of  the  Ming  family  observed,  ''  The  bowstring 
drawn  violently  will  break ;  the  people  pressed  hard 
will  rebel."  Another  sovereign  observed  to  his 
heir,  "  You  see  that  the  boat  in  which  we  sit  is 
supported  by  the  water,  which  at  the  same  time  is 
able,  if  roused,  to  overwhelm  it :  remember  that  the 
water  represents  the  people,  and  the  emperor  only 
the  boat."    Amid  all  the   internal  revolutions  of 


INFLUENCE  OF  LEARNING.       203 

China,  it  is  deserving  of  remark,  that  no  single  in- 
stance has  ever  occurred  of  an  attempt  to  change 
the  form  of  that  pure  monarchy  which  is  founded 
in,  or  derived  from,  patriarchal  authority.  The  only 
object  has  been,  in  most  cases,  the  destruction  of  a 
tyrant ;  or,  when  the  country  was  divided  into  sev- 
eral states,  the  acquisition  of  universal  po-wer  by 
the  head  of  one  of  them. 

This  people  has,  perhaps,  derived  some  advantage 
from  the  habit  of  reserving  its  respect  exclusively 
for  those  objects  which  may  be  considered  as  the 
original  and  legitimate  sources  of  that  feehng.  We 
think  there  is  much  truth  in  the  observations  of  Mr. 
Rogers,  in  a  note  to  one  of  his  poems : — "  Age  was 
anciently  synonymous  with  power ;  and  we  may  al- 
ways observe  that  the  old  are  held  in  more  or  less 
honour,  as  men  are  more  or  less  virtuous.  Among 
us,  and  wherever  birth  and  possession  give  rank  and 
authority,  the  young  and  the  profligate  are  seen  con- 
tinually above  the  old  and  the  worthy:  their  age 
can  never  find  its  due  respect ;  but  among  many  of 
the  ancient  nations  it  was  otherwise,  and  they  reap- 
ed the  benefit  of  it.  '  Rien  ne  maintient  plus  les 
moeurs  qu'une  extreme  subordination  des  jeunes 
gens  envers  les  vieillards.  Les  uns  et  les  autres 
seront  contenus :  ceux-la  par  le  respect  qu'ils  auront 
pour  les  vieillards,  et  ceux-ci  par  le  respect  qu'ils 
auront  pour  eux-memes.'  " — {Montesquieu.^  We 
have  before  mentioned  that  the  Chinese  possess 
this  antiquated  habit ;  but  their  regard  for  age,  even, 
is  secondary  to  their  respect  for  learning.  "  In 
learning,"  says  their  maxim,,  "age  and  youth  go 
for  nothing:  the  best  informed  takes  the  prece- 
dence," The  chief  source  of  rank  and  considera- 
tion in  China  is  certainly  cultivated  talent ;  and, 
whatever  may  be  the  character  of  the  learning  on 
which  it  is  exercised,  this  at  least  is  a  more  legiti- 
mate as  well  as  more  beneficial  object  of  respect 
than  the  vulgar  pretensions  of  wealth  and  fashion, 
or  the  accidental  ones  of  mere  birth. 


204  THE  CHINESE. 

Wealth  alone,  though  it  has  of~  course  some  ne- 
cessary influence,  is  looked  upon  with  l(?ss  respect, 
comparatively,  than  perhaps  in  any  other  country ; 
and  this  because  all  distinction  and  rank  arise  almost 
entirely  from  educated  talent.  The  choice  of  offi- 
cial persons,  who  form  the  real  aristocracy  of  the 
country,  is  guided,  with  a  very  few  exceptions,  by 
the  possession  of  those  qualities,  and  the  country 
is  therefore  as  ably  ruled  as  it  could  be  under  the 
circumstances.  "  Les  lettres  (observed  a  corre- 
spondent of  ours  from  Peking)  ainsi  honores  par  les 
Han,  ont  acquis  un  grand  ascendant  sur  le  peuple  ; 
la  politique  s'en  est  empare  dans  toutes  les  dynas- 
ties, et  c'est  sans  doute  a  cette  reunion  des  esprits 
que  la  Chine  doit  son  bonheur,  sa  paix,  et  sa  pros- 
perite."  The  official  aristocracy,  content  with  their 
solid  rank  and  power,  aim  at  no  external  display; 
on  the  contrary,  a  certain  affectation,  on  their  part, 
of  patriarchal  simplicity,  operates  as  a  sunjptuary 
law,  and  gives  a  corresponding  tone  to  the  habits 
of  the  people.  We  are  bound  to  admit  that  some 
evils  result  from  this :  superfluous  wealth,  in  the 
hands  of  the  vulgar  possessors  of  it,  is  driven  to 
find  a  vent  occasionally  in  the  gratification  of  private 
sensuality. 

Superfluous  wealth,  however,  is  no  very  com- 
mon occurrence  in  China.  A  man's  sons  divide  his 
property  between  them,  or  rather  live  upon  it  in 
common,  and  the  only  right  of  primogeniture  seems 
to  consist  in  the  eldest  being  a  sort  of  steward  or 
trustee  for  the  estate.  The  temptations  to  immod- 
erate accumulation  are  not  so  great  as  with  us,  nor 
the  opportunities  for  it  so  frequent,  where  tlie  or- 
dinary channels  of  commerce  are  liable  neither  to 
such  spring-tides,  nor  to  such  violent  ebbs.  We 
must  repeat  that  the  fortunes  made  by  hoppos  and 
Hong  merchants  at  Canton  are  no  examples  what- 
ever of  the  usual  state  of  things  in  the  empire,  i\\ 
cases  where  natives  only  are  concerned.     The  real 


LEARNING  CONFERS  RANK.       205 

aristocracy  of  the  country  being  official,  and  not 
hereditary,  there  are  no  famihes  to  be  perpetuated 
by  a  system  of  entails ;  and,  if  a  man  were  willing 
to  transmit  his  possessions  in  the  shape  of  endless 
settlements,  the  lav/  will  not  let  him. 

It  is  an  observation  of  Hume,  that  "the  absence 
of  any  hereditary  aristocracy  may  secure  the  intes- 
tine tranquillity  of  the  state,  by  making  it  impossi- 
ble for  faction  or  rebellion  to  find  any  powerful 
heads."  This,  we  fancy,  is  exactly  the  principle  on 
which  the  Chinese  government  is  so  jealous  of  any 
undue  perpetuation  of  greatness  in  families.*  There 
are  certain  hereditary  titles,  descending  one  step  in 
rank  through  five  generations,  and  the  privilege  of 
wearing  the  yellow  and  red  girdles,  which  serve  to 
distinguish  the  numerous  descendants  of  the  impe- 
rial family  ;  but  these,  though  they  are  certainly  a 
class  of  titular  nobility,  are  far  from  being  the  real 
aristocracy  of  the  country,  and,  without  personal 
merit,  they  are  little  considered.!  The  Chinese 
have  a  saying,  that,  "by  learning,  the  sons  of  the 
common  people  become  great ;  without  learning, 
the  sons  of  the  great  become  mingled  with  the  mass 
of  the  people." 

All  real  rank  of  consequence  being  determined  by 
talent,  the  test  of  this  is  afforded  at  the  public  ex- 
aminations. These  are  open  to  the  poorest  persons ; 
and  only  some  classes,  as  menial  servants,  comedi- 
ans, and  the  lowest  agents  of  the  police,  are  exclu- 
ded. The  government  seems  to  consider  that  its 
own  stability  is  best  secured  by  placing  the  great- 
est talent,  if  not  always,  the  purest  virtue,  in  offices 
of  trust.     With  a  view  to  promoting  the  efficiency 

*  There  is  a  law  in  their  penal  cede. denouncing  death  not 
only  to  him  who  recommends  the  elevation  of  a  civil  officer  to 
an  hereditary  title,  but  to  him  in  whose  favour  the  recommenda- 
tion is  made. 

+  Du  Halde  observes,  "  they  have  no  lands ;  and,  as  the  em- 
peror cannot  give  them  all  pensions,  some  live  in  great  poverty." 

Vol.  I.— S 


206  THE   CHINESE. 

of  their  standing  army,  the  Manchow  Tartar  em- 
perors have  established  a  mihtary  examination,  in 
which  the  relative  merit  of  mandarins  in  martial 
exercises  is  distinguished  by  similar  grades. 

It  is  time,  however,  that  we  proceed  to  consider 
the  actual  machinery  of  government,  commencing 
with  the  supreme  head,  the  emperor.  His  titles  are 
the  "  Son  of  Heaven,"  the  "  Ten  thousand  Years." 
He  is  worshipped  with  divine  honours,  and  with  the 
attribute  of  ubiquity  throughout  the  empire.  The 
following  is  from  an  eyewitness  to  the  celebration 
of  the  emperor's  birthday  at  Peking,*  and  the  cere- 
mony is  universal  and  simultaneous  through  the 
chief  cities  of  China.  "  The  first  day  was  conse- 
crated to  the  purpose  of  rendering  a  solemn,  sacred, 
and  devout  homage  to  the  supreme  majesty  of  the 
emperor.  The  princes,  tributaries,  ambassadors, 
great  officers  of  state,  and  principal  mandarins, 
were  assembled  in  a  vast  hall,  and  upon  particular 
notice  were  introduced  into  an  inner  building,  bear- 
ing at  least  the  semblance  of  a  temple.  It  was 
chiefly  furnished  with  great  instruments  of  music, 
among  which  were  sets  of  cylindrical  bells,  sus- 
pended in  a  line  from  ornamented  frames  of  wood, 
and  gradually  diminishing  in  size  from  one  extrem- 
ity to  the  other,  and  also  triangular  pieces  of  metal, 
arranged  in  the  same  order  as  the  bells.  To  the 
sound  of  these  instruments,  a  slow  and  solemn  hymn 
was  sung  by  eunuchs,  who  had  such  a  command 
over  their  voices  as  to  resemble  the  effect  of  the 
musical  glasses  at  a  distance.  The  performers  were 
directed  in  ghding  from  one  tone  to  another  by  the 
striking  of  a  shrill  and  sonorous  cymbal ;  and  the 
judges  of  music  among  the  gentlemen  of  the  em- 
bassy were  much  pleased  with  their  execution.  The 
whole  had  indeed  a  grand  effect.  During  the  per- 
formance, and  at  particular  signals,  nine  times  re- 

*  Staunton,  vol.  ii.,  p.  255. 


EMPEROR  IS  HIGH-PRIEST.  207 

peated,  all  the  persons  present  prostrated  them- 
selves nine  times,  except  the  ambassador  and  his 
suite,  who  made  a  profound  obeisance.  But  he 
whom  it  was  meant  to  honour  continued,  as  if  it 
were  in  imitation  of  the  Deity,  invisible  the  whole 
time.  The  awful  impression  made  upon  the  minds 
of  men  by  this  apparent  worship  of  a  fellow-mortal 
was  not  to  be  effaced  by  any  immediate  scenes  of 
sport  or  gayety,  which  were  postponed  to  the  fol- 
lowing day. 

The  emperor  worships  Heaven,  and  the  people 
worship  the  emperor.  It  is  remarkable  that  with 
all  this  the  sovereign,  in  styling  himself,  uses  oc- 
casionally such  a  term  of  affected  humility  as  "  the 
imperfect  man  ;"  which  presents  a  contrast  to  the 
inflated  and  self-laudatory  expressions  of  most  ori- 
ental monarchs.  Every  device  of  state,  however, 
is  used  to  keep  up  by  habit  the  impression  of  awe. 
No  person  whatever  can  pass  before  the  outer  gate 
of  the  palace  in  any  vehicle  or  on  horseback.  The 
vacant  throne,  or  a  screen  of  yellow  silk,  is  equally 
worshipped  with  his  actual  presence.  An  imperial 
despatch  is  received  in  the  provinces  with  offerings 
of  incense  and  prostration,  looking  towards  Peking. 
There  is  a  paved  walk  to  the  principal  audience- 
hall,  on  which  none  can  tread  but  the  emperor.  At 
the  same  time,  as  if  his  transcendent  majesty  could 
derive  no  increase  from  personal  decorations,  he  is 
distinguished  from  his  court,  unlike  most  Asiatic 
sovereigns,  by  being  more  plainly  clad  than  those 
by  whom  he  is  surrounded.  In  Lord  Macartney's 
mission,  while  the  crowd  of  mandarins  was  covered 
with  embroidery  and  splendour,  the  emperor  ap- 
peared in  a  dress  of  plain  brown  silk,  and  a  black 
velvet  cap  with  a  singie  pearl  in  front.  Yellow,  as 
the  imperial  colour,  would  seem  at  present  rather 
to  distinguish  things  pertaining  to  his  use,  or  con- 
nected with  him  in  other  ways,  than  to  constitute  a 
part  of  his  actual  garments,  except  perhaps  on  very 


208  THE    CHINESE. 

great  occasions.  The  sovereign  of  China  has  the 
absolute  disposal  of  the  succession,  and,  if  he  pleas- 
es, can  name  his  heir  out  of  his  own  family.  This 
has  descended  from  time  immemorial ;  and  the  an- 
cient monarchs,  Yaou  and  Shun,  are  famous  exam- 
ples of  such  a  mode  of  selection.  The  imperial 
authority  or  sanction  to  all  public  acts  is  conveyed 
by  the  impression  of  a  seal,  some  inches  square, 
and  composed  of  jade,  a  greenish  white  stone,  call- 
ed by  the  Chinese  Yu.  Any  particular  directions 
or  remarks  by  the  emperor  himself  are  added  in  red, 
commonly  styled  "  the  vermilion  pencil."  All  im- 
perial edicts  of  a  special  nature,  after  being  address- 
ed to  the  proper  tribunal,  or  other  authority,  are 
promulged  in  the  Peking  Gazette,  which  contains 
nothing  but  what  relates  to  the  supreme  govern- 
ment ;  that  is,  either  reports  to  the  emperor,  or 
mandates  from  him.  It  is  death  to  falsify  any  pa- 
per therein  contained :  but  it  must  be  observed,  that 
these  special  edicts  of  the  sovereign,  as  applicable 
to  the  exigences  of  particular  cases,  either  in  ag- 
gravation or  mitigation  of  punishment,  are  not  al- 
lowed to  be  applied  as  precedents  in  penal  jurisdic- 
tion.* There  is  more  wisdom  in  this  rule  than  in 
that  which  gave  to  the  rescripts  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors, in  individual  cases,  the  force  of  perpetual 
laws, — a  system  which  has  very  properly  been  call- 
ed "  arguing  from  particulars  to  generals." 

As  Pontifex  Maximus,  or  high-priest  of  the  em- 
pire, the  "  Son  of  Heaven"  alone,  with  his  imme- 
diate representatives,  sacrifices  in  the  government 
temples,  with  victims  and  incense.  These  rites, 
preceded  as  they  are  by  fasting  and  purification, 
bear  a  perfect  resemblance  to  the  offerings  with 
which  we  are  familiar  in  the  history  of  antiquity. 
No  hierarchy  is  maintained  at  the  public  expense, 
nor   any  priesthood  attached  to  the  Confucian  or 

*  Penal  Code,  Sect.  415. 


MACHINERY    OF   GOVERNMENT.  209 

government  religion,  as  the  sovereign  and  his  great 
officers  perform  that  part.  The  two  religious  orders 
of  Fo  Slnd  Taou,  which  are  only  tolerated^  and  not 
maintained,  by  the  government,  derive  support  en- 
tirely from  their  own  funds,  or  from  voluntary  pri- 
vate contributions.  This  remark  must  of  course  be 
confined  to  China ;  for  in  Mongol  Tartary  the  em- 
peror finds  it  expedient  to  show  more  favour  to  the 
lamas  of  the  Buddhist  hierarchy,  on  account  of  their 
influence  over  the  people  of  those  extensive  re- 
gions. It  is  a  striking  circumstance  that  the  Con- 
fucian persuasion  has  continued  supreme  in  China, 
though  the  conquerors  of  the  country  were  not 
Confucians. 

The  emperor's  principal  ministers  form  the  Nuy- 
ko,  or  "  interior  council  chamber,"  and  the  chief 
counsellors  are  four  in  number,  two  Tartars  and  two 
Chinese,  the  former  always  taking  precedence : 
they  all  bear  the  titles  of  Choong-t'hang  and  Ko- 
laou,  written  by  the  Jesuits  Colao.  Below  these 
are  a  number  of  assessors,  who,  together  with  them, 
form  the  great  council  of  state.  The  body  whence 
these  chief  ministers  are  generally  selected  is  the 
Imperial  College,  or  National  Institute,  of  the  H4n- 
lin.  If  there  is  any  thing  which  can  be  called  a 
hierarchy  of  the  state  religion  (which  we  have  al- 
ready stated  the  government  does  not  maintain  in  a 
special  shape),  it  is  this  H&n-lin,  In  his  memoirs 
of  Napoleon,  Bourrienne  relates  a  very  character- 
istic trait :  in  the  classification  of  his  private  library, 
the  emperor  arranged  the  Bible  under  the  head  of 
political  works.  .Just  in  the  same  spirit  the  Chinese 
government  makes  rehgion  an  engine,  or  rather  a 
part,  of  political  rule.  The  sovereign  is  high-priest, 
and  his  ministers  are  the  members  of  the  hierarchy ; 
and  the  sacred  books  of  Confucius  are  studied  and 
expounded  by  the  H§,n-lin  college,  which  in  this  re- 
spect is  a  species  of  Sorbonne.  Besides  the  su- 
preme council  of  the  emperor  already  mentioned, 
S2 


210  THE    CHINESE. 

there  is  the  Keiin-ky-t^-chin,  a  body  of  privy-coun- 
sellors, for  occasions  when  secrecy  and  despatch 
may  be  particularly  required.  The  person  called 
Duke  Ho,  in  Lord  Amherst's  embassy,  was  one  of 
these. 

The  Lew-poo,  or  six  boards  for  the  conduct  of 
government  business  in  detail,  are,  L  The  Board  of 
Official  Appointments,  which  takes  cognizance  of 
the  conduct  of  all  civil  officers;  2.  The  Board  of 
Revenue,  which  regulates  all  fiscal  matters;  3.  The 
Board  of  Rites  and  Ceremonies ;  4.  The  Military 
Board;  5.  The  Supreme  Court  of  Criminal  Juris- 
diction ;  6.  The  Board  of  Public  Works.  These 
have  all  subordinate  offices  under  them ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  Astronomical  Board  is  attached  to  the 
third,  the  ritual  being  regulated  by  the  calendar. 

The  Lyfan-yuen  may  be  literally  rendered  by  the 
"office  for  foreign  affairs."  As  its  name  imports, 
it  has  charge  of  the  external  relations  of  the  em- 
pire. One  of  the  presidents  was  deputed  to  receive 
the  British  embassy  in  181G,  and  they  consist  always 
of  Manchow  or  Mongol  Tartars,  no  Chinese  ever 
being  employed.  A  very  peculiar  feature  of  the 
government  is  next  observable  in  the  Too-cha  yuen, 
or  office  of  censors,  of  which  the  members  are 
generally  styled  Yu-she.  There  are  two  presidents, 
a  Tartar  and  a  Chinese,  and  the  members  consist  in 
all  of  about  forty  or  fifty,  of  which  several  are  sent 
to  various  parts  of  the  empire,  as  imperial  inspec- 
tors, or  perhaps,  more  properly  speaking,  spies. 
By  the  ancient  custom  of  the  empire  they  are  privi- 
leged to  present  any  advice  or  remonstrance  to  the 
sovereign  without  danger  of  losing  their  lives  ;  but 
they  are  frequently  degraded  or  punished  when  their 
addresses  are  unpalatable.  An  example  of  the  of- 
fice, and  the  fate  of  one  of  these,  occurs  at  the 
commencement  of  the  romance  of  the  "  Fortunate 
Union,"  published  by  the  Oriental  Translation  Com- 
mittee.   A  living  example,  however,  is  conspicuous 


CHECKS  ON  ORGANS  OF  GOVERNMENT.   211 

in  Soong-ta-jin,  the  conductor  of  Lord  Macartney's 
embassy,  who,  at  a  very  advanced  age,  is  m  a  state 
of  what  may  be  styled  respectable  disgrace,  for  the 
boldness  and  honesty  with  which  he  has  always 
spoken  out. 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  organs  of  the  im- 
perial government  at  Peking.  The  provinces  are 
placed  under  the  principal  charge,  either  singly  of  a 
fooyuen,  or  governor,  or  two  provinces  together 
are  made  subject  to  a  tsoong-to,  or  "general  gov- 
ernor," v/ho  has  fooyuens  under  him  for  each  sin- 
gle province.  Canton  and  Kuang--sy,  adjoining,  are 
together  subject  to  the  tsoong-to,  commonly  called 
the  Viceroy  of  Canton.  In  each  of  these  govern- 
ments there  is  a  chief  criminal  judge  and  a  treasu- 
rer, the  latter  having  usually  cognizance  of  civil 
suits,  but  his  especial  business  being  the  charge  of 
the  territorial  revenue.  The  salt  department  is  suf- 
ficiently important  to  be  under  the  particular  man- 
agement of  the  yen-yun-sse,  or  "  salt-mandarin," 
as  he  is  called  at  Canton ;  the  Chinese  government, 
like  so  many  others,  having  reserved  to  itself  the 
monopoly  of  this  necessary  of  hfe. 

The  separate  cities  and  districts  of  each  province, 
in  the  three  ranks  of  Foo,  Chow,  and  Hien,  are  un-t 
der  the  charge  of  their  respective  magistrates,  who 
take  their  rank  from  the  cities  they  govern.  The 
total  number  of  civil  magistrates  throughout  China 
is  estimated  at  14,000.  The  importance  of  the  Eu- 
ropean trade  at  Canton  has  given  rise  to  the  special 
appointment  there  of  the  hae-ku§,n,  or  commission- 
er of  the  customs,  who  is  called  by  Europeans 
hoppo,  a  corruption  of  hoo-poo,  the  board  of  rev- 
enue at  Peking.  He  is  generally  some  Tartar  fa- 
vourite of  the  emperor,  sent  down  to  make  his  for- 
tune by  the  foreign  trade,  and  he  generally  contrives 
to  do  this  rapidly,  by  squeezing  the  Hong  merchants, 
over  whom  he  has  entire  control. 

A  red  book  (being  literally  one  with  a  red  cover), 


212  THE    CHINESE. 

in  six  small  volumes,  is  printed  quarterly  by  author- 
ity, containing  the  name,  birthplace,  and  other  par- 
ticulars relating  to  every  official  person  in  the  em- 
pire. No  individual  can  hold  a  magistracy  in  his 
own  province ;  and  each  public  officer  is  changed 
periodically,  to  prevent  growing  connexions  and 
liaisons  with  those  under  his  government.  A  son, 
a  brother,  or  any  other  very  near  relation,  cannot 
hold  office  under  a  corresponding  relative.  Once  in 
three  years  the  viceroy  of  each  province  forwards, 
to  the  board  of  civil  appointments,  the  name  of 
every  officer  under  his  government  down  to  a  hien's 
deputy,  with  remarks  on  their  conduct  and  charac- 
ter, which  have  all  been  received  from  the  immedi- 
ate superiors  of  each  : — a  plan  not  unlike  that  which 
has  lately  been  adopted  in  the  civil  government  of 
British  India.  According  to  this  report,  every  offi- 
cer is  raised  or  degraded  so  many  degrees.  Each 
magistrate  is  obhged  to  state,  in  the  catalogue  of 
his  titles,  the  number  of  steps  that  he  has  been  either 
raised  or  degraded.  The  offences  of  great  officers 
are  tried  by  imperial  commissioners,  specially  ap- 
pointed. Disturbances  or  rebellions  in  a  province 
are  never  forgiven  to  a  governor  or  viceroy.  The 
governor  of  Canton,  w^ho  only  one  year  before  had 
obtained  signal  marks  of  the  emperor's  favour,  was 
ruined  in  1832  by  the  rebelhon  or  irruption  of  the 
mountaineers  in  the  northwest,  tliough  he  was 
quite  innocent  of  any  blame  on  the  occasion. 

The  relative  degrees  of  civil  and  military  officers 
are  partly  distinguished  by  the  colour  of  the  ball 
which  they  wear  at  the  apex  or  point  of  their  coni- 
cal caps.  These  are  red,  light  blue,  dark  blue,  crys- 
tal, white  stone,  and  gold ;  and,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, they  serve  to  distinguish  what  are  called  the 
"  nine  ranks."  Each  ball  is  accompanied  by  its  cor- 
responding badge,  which  is  a  piece  of  silk  embroi- 
dery, about  a  foot  square,  with  the  representation  of 
a  bird,  or  other  device,  on  both  the  breast  and  back 


CIVIL  OFFICERS  SUPERIOR  TO  MILITARY.     213 

of  the  ceremonial  habit,  together  with  a  necklace 
of  very  large  "court-beads"  descending  to  the 
waist. 

These  mere  outward  decorations,  however,  are 
not  infallible  signs  of  the  real  rank  of  the  wearer, 
for  the  bare  permission  to  assume  the  dress,  with- 
out any  of  the  powers  or  privileges  of  an  officer  of 
government,  may  be  purchased  for  a  large  sum  of 
money.  The  only  benefit  derived  is  this,  that,  in 
case  of  a  breach  of  the  law,  the  individual  cannot 
be  punished  on  the  spot,  nor  until  he  has  been  for- 
mally deprived  of  his  ball,  or  button,  a  process 
which  is  not  long  in  performing.  Any  Hong  mer- 
chant at  Canton,  who  should  have  purchased  leave 
to  wear  the  blue  ball  on  his  cap,  may  be  cited  to 
appear  by  a  magistrate  of  the  lowest  grade,  who 
wears  only  a  gold  or  rather  a  gilt  one,  and,  if  really 
criminal,  he  may  be  deprived  of  his  finery  and 
punished  with  the  bamboo  like  any  unprivileged 
person. 

It  may  be  considered  as  one  proof  of  social  ad- 
vancement on  the  part  of  the  Chinese,  that  tke  civil 
authority  is  generally  superior  to  the  military,  and 
that  letters  always  rank  above  arms,  in  spite  even 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  Tartars  obtained  the 
empire.  In  this  respect  China  may  be  said  to  have 
subdued  her  conquerors.  A  military  mandarin  of 
the  highest  grade  may  be  often  seen  on  foot,  when 
a  civil  officer  of  middling  rank  would  be  considered 
as  degraded  unless  in  a  chair  with  four  bearers  ;  the 
others  are  not  allowed  chairs,  but  may  ride.  The 
present  dynasty,  as  an  encouragement  to  its  army, 
established  examinations,  or  rather  trials,  in  the 
military  art  (as  in  riding  and  shooting  with  the  bow), 
at  which  the  candidates  are  ranked  for  promotion  in 
three  degrees  like  the  civilians,  though  of  course 
they  can  never  come  in  competition  with  each 
other.  The  value  which  they  attach  to  personal 
strength  and  dexterity  in  a  commander,  and  the 


214 


THE   CHINESE. 


rank  which  the  bow  and  arrow  hold  in  their  estima- 
tion, seem  to  prove  clearly  that  the  military  art  is 
not  beyond  its  infancy  among  the  Chinese. 


Mandarin  seated  in  a  Sedan.— From  Staunton. 

All  the  military  of  the  empire  are  under  the  man- 
agement of  their  proper  tribunal  or  board  at  Peking, 
the  power  of  which,  however,  is  jealously  checked 
by  a  dependance  on  some  of  the  others;  as  the 
Board  of  Revenue  must  supply  the  funds,  and  the 
Board  of  Pubhc  Works  the  materiel,  of  the  army. 
The  trusty  Tartar  troops  are  ranged  under  the  eight 
standards;  viz.,  the  yellow,  white,  red,  and  blue, 
and  each  of  these  colours  bordered  by  one  of  the 


INFERIORITY  OF  TROOPS.  215 

Others.  The  green  flag  distinguishes  the  Chinese 
troops.  Each  of  the  Tartar  standards  is  said  to 
consist  of  10,000  men,  making  a  standing  army  of 
60,000.  There  is,  besides,  the  local  militia  spread 
through  the  provinces ;  but  this,  from  all  that  has 
been  observed  of  it,  is  such  a  ragged  and  undisci- 
phned  rout,  as  to  be  fit  for  little  more  than  the  pur- 
poses of  a  pohce. 

Including  this  militia,  the  whole  number  receiv* 
ing  pay  throughout  the  empire  has  been  estimated 
at  700,000,  of  which  by  far  the  largest  portion  are 
fixed  to  their  native  districts,  cultivating  the  land,  or 
following  some  other  private  pursuit.  This  circum- 
stance, in  a  peaceful  country,  makes  the  profession 
of  a  militia-man  an  object  of  solicitude,  as  it  pro- 
vides something  over  and  above  a  man's  ordinary 
means.  How  ill-calculated  it  must  be  to  produce 
efficient  soldiers  need  scarcely  be  argued.  The  rea- 
sons adduced  by  Adam  Smith,  in  his  third  volume, 
to  prove  the  superiority  of  the  militia  of  a  barba- 
rous nation  over  that  of  a  civihzed  one,  are  quite 
conclusive  on  the  subject,  and  best  illustrated  by 
the  conquest  of  this  very  country  by  the  Manchows, 
a  mere  maniple  of  a  nation. 

The  missionaries  themselves,  quoted  by  Du  Halde, 
who  were  much  more  accustomed  to  magnify  than 
diminish  the  merit  of  any  thing  Chinese,  seemed  to 
be  aware  of  the  inferiority  of  these  troops  as  sol- 
diers. "  They  are  not  comparable,"  it  is  observed, 
"  to  our  troops  in  Europe  for  either  courage  or  disci- 
pline, and  they  are  easily  disordered  and  put  to  the 
rout.  Besides  that  the  Chinese  are  naturally  efi'em- 
inate,  and  the  Tartars  are  almost  become  Chinese, 
the  profound  peace  they  have  enjoyed  does  not 
give  them  occasion  to  become  warlike."  Several 
circumstances  conduce  to  prevent  China  from  de- 
riving such  advantage  as  she- might  to  her  military 
power,  from  the  actual  amount  of  her  opulence  and 
population.     First,  that  pride  and  conceit^  which  are 


216  THE    CHINESE. 

a  bar  to  all  improvement  in  the  arts,  and,  among 
the  rest,  the  art  of  war.  Secondly,  that  jealousy 
of  the  Chinese  population,  which  prevents  the  Tar- 
tar government  from  making  of  it  such  efficient 
troops  as  it  might.  Thirdly,  that  overwhelming  su- 
periority which  the  empire  possesses  over  the  petty 
and  barbarous  states  on  its  frontiers ;  and  which,  in 
having  prevented  aggressions  on  it,  has  precluded 
the  practice  and  experience  so  necessaiy  to  make 
good  soldiers. 

The  long  and  successful  resistance  of  the  Meaou- 
tse,  a  race  of  barbarians  in  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  interior  of  China  itself,  and  their  independence 
at  the  present  time,  attest  the  w^eakness  of  Chinese 
military  resources,  and  the  very  moderate  efficiency 
of  troops,  which  are  seldom  employed  in  any  thing 
more  formidable  than  the  suppression  of  a  revolt  in 
some  starving  province,  and  thus  engaged,  as  it 
were,  in  fighting  with  shadows.  The  Canton  troops 
in  1832  were  defeated  by  the  mountaineers  on  the 
borders,  and  in  fact  proved  utterly  worthless  from 
the  general  use  of  opium,  and  tlie  absence  of  prac- 
tice and  discipline.  This  on  land :  but  their  navy 
is  even  worse.  The  long  and  successful  career  of 
the  Ladrones,  or  pirates,  in  the  vicinity  of  Canton, 
who  were,  after  all,  subdued  only  by  the  honours 
conferred  on  their  chief  as  the  price  of  his  submis- 
sion, is  sufficient  evidence  on  this  point. 

The  abuses  and  malversation,  on  the  part  of  mil- 
itary officers  intrusted  with  funds  for  the  provision 
of  soldiers,  appear  to  be  frequent ;  and  there  is  rea- 
son to  suppose  that  some  of  the  assumed  militia  of 
China  are  little  better  than  men  of  straw,  whose 
allotted  funds  are  misapplied,  if  not  after  the  exam- 
ple, yet  in  the  manner,  of  that  eminent  command- 
er Sir  John  Falstaff.  It  must  have  been  to  some 
such  system  that  our  embassy  in  1816  was  indebted 
for  the  ludicrous  scenes  exhibited  in  its  progress. 
The  emperor's  edicts  ordained  that  tlie  troops  should 


LOW  ART  OF  WAR.  217 

wear  "  an  imposing  aspect :"  but,  on  approaching-  a 
town  or  station,  numbers  of  fellows  might  be  seen 
scouring  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  laden  with 
jackets  and  accoutrements,  which  were  clapped  on 
the  backs  of  those  who  had  been  pressed  for  the 
occasion,  and  who  betrayed,  from  under  their  as- 
sumed, habiliments,  the  primitive  dirt  and  rags  of 
their  condition. 

Very  few  mounted  soldiers  were  seen  by  either 
of  our  embassies ;  and,  whatever  may  be  their  ac- 
tual amount,  they  are  said  to  be  nearly  all  Tartars. 
A  great  difference  seems  to  exist  between  the  pay 
of  Tartars  and  Chinese.  One  of  the  former,  being 
a  foot-soldier,  is  allowed  two  taels  per  month,  or 
about  fivepence  a  day,  with  an  allowance  of  rice ; 
one  of  the  latter,  only  one  tael  and  six  tenths,  with- 
out the  rice.  The  reasons  for  this  difference  may 
be  the  following : — First,  that  the  Tartar  in  China 
belongs  to  a  standing  army,  at  a  distance  from  his 
home,  and  dependant  solely  on  his  profession ;  while 
the  other  is  commonly,  if  not  always,  a  militia-man, 
carrying  on  his  own  occupations  when  off  duty. 
Secondly,  some  allowance  may  be  made  for  the 
national  partiality  of  the  governing  power,  and  the 
necessity  of  attaching  its  confidential  servants  by 
liberality. 

The  most  common  uniform  of  the  mihtary  is  a 
jacket  of  blue  turned  up  with  red,  or  red  bordered 
with  white,  over  a  long  petticoat  of  blue.  The  cap 
is  either  of  rattan  or  strips  of  bamboo  painted,  be- 
ing in  a  conical  shape,  and  well  suited  to  ward  off  a 
blow ;  though  on  some  occasions  they  wear  a  cap 
of  cloth  and  silk,  similar  to  that  of  the  mandarins, 
without  the  ball  or  button  at  the  top.  Some  few 
are  defended  by  a  clumsy-looking  quilted  armour 
of  cloth,  studded  with  metal  buttons,  which  descends 
in  a  long  petticoat,  and  gives  the  wearer  the  appear- 
ance of  one  who  could  neither  fight  nor  f!y.  The 
helmet  is  of  iron,  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  fun- 

VoL.  I.— T 


218  THE   CHINESE. 

nel,  having  a  point  at  the  top,  to  which  is  attached 
a  bunch  of  silk  or  horse-hair. 

The  principal  arms  of  the  cavalry  are  bows  and 
arrows,  the  bow  being  of  elastic  wood  and  horn 
combined,  with  a  string  of  silk  strongly  twisted  and 
wrought.  The  strength  of  their  bows  is  estimated 
by  the  weight  required  to  bend  them,  varying  from 
about  eighty  pounds  to  a  hundred  weight.  The 
string,  in  shooting,  is  held  behind  an  agate  or  stone 
ring  on  the  right  thumb,  the  first  joint  of  which  is 


Chinese  Shield.— From  an  original  drawing  in  the  India  House. 

bent  forward  and  confined  by  the  middle  joint  of 
the  forefinger  being  pressed  upon  it.     Their  swords 


Instruments  of  War. 


WEAPONS    OF  THE    CHINESE.  221 

are  generally  ill-made,  and  their  matchlocks  con- 
sidered by  them  as  inferior  weapons  to  the  bow  and 
arrow,  which  they  may  perhaps  be,  considering 
their  appearance  and  make.  Some  are  provided 
with  shields,  constructed  of  rattan  turned  spirally 
round  a  centre. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  artillery,  Du  Halde  ob- 
serves with  apparent  reason,  that,  "  though  the 
knowledge  of  gunpowder  is  very  ancient  in  China, 
artille-ry  is  but  modern."  It  is  clear  that,  as  late  as 
1621,  the  city  of  Macao  was  invited  to  send  three 
guns  to  Peking,  with  men  to  manage  them,  against 
the  Tartars  ;  and  equally  certain  that,  under  the  last 
emperor  of  the  Chinese  dynasty,  about  the  year 
1636,  when  the  empire  was  threatened  by  the  Man- 
chows,  the  Jesuits  at  Peking  vvereMesired  by  the 
emperor  to  instruct  his  people  in  casting  some  can- 
non. But  the  most  successful  operator  in  this  way 
was  the  famous  Ferdinand  Verbiest,  under  whose 
mspection  some  hundred  pieces  of  artillery  were 
constructed  for  the  Tartar  emperor  KAng-hy,  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  This 
was  made  a  subject  of  accusation  against  the  Jesuits 
at  Rome ;  but  they  defended  themselves  by  arguing 
that  it  promoted  the  cause  of  Christianity,  by  ma- 
king their  services  necessary  to  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment. It  is  certain  that,  during  the  course  of  three 
centuries,  no  mission  has  ever  succeeded  for  a  time 
so  well  as  theirs,  but  that  at  present  there  are  not  a 
dozen  European  missionaries  in  the  interior,  among 
a  population  estimated  at  more  than  300,000,000  of 
souls. 

The  highest  military  rank  is  that  of  a  tseang-keun, 
or  Tartar  general,  one  of  whom  has  charge  of  the 
regular  troops  in  Canton  province  :  this  post  can 
never  be  filled  by  a  Chinese,  but  secondary  com- 
mands may.  Below  these  are  subordinate  officers, 
promoted  in  regular  order  from  the  lowest  grade, 
according  to  their  physical  strength,  and  their  skill 


222  THE   CHINESE. 

ill  shooting  with  the  bow,  combined  with  the  activ- 
ity and  zeal  which  they  may  occasionally  display 
in  cases  of  civil  commotion  or  revolt.  One  very 
singular  feature  we  must  not  forget  to  notice,  in  re- 
gard to  the  military  officers  of  China.  They  are  all 
subject  to  corporal  punishment,  and  very  often  ex- 
perience it,  together  with  the  punishment  of  the 
cangue,  or  moveable  pillory,  consisting  of  a  heavy 
frame  of  wood,  sometimes  upwards  of  a  hundred 
pounds  in  weight,  with  holes  for  the  head  and  hands. 
This  parental  allotment  of  a  certain  quantum  of 
flagellation  and  personal  exposure,  is  occasionally 
the  fate  of  the  highest  officers,  and,  upon  the  whole, 
must  be  regarded  as  a  very  odd  way  of  improving 
their  military  character.  It  must  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  enterprising  courage  is  not  considered  as 
a  merit  in  Chinese  tactics.  They  have  a  maxim., 
that  "  rash  and  arrogant  soldiers  must  be  defeated," 
which  may  be  allowed  to  contain  some  truth ;  and 
the  chief  virtue  of  their  strategy  is  extreme  caution 
and  love  of  craft,  not  without  a  large  share  of  per- 
fidy and  falsehood :  so  that  to  treat  with  a  Chinese 
general,  and  expect  him  to  fulfil  his  engagements, 
would  be  altogether  a  miscalculation. 

We  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  that  very  effi- 
cient engine  for  the  control  of  its  vast  and  densely- 
thronged  population,  the  penal  code  of  China ;  and 
this  deserves  the  more  particular  notice,  as  afford- 
ing the  best  data  for  correctly  estimating  the  char- 
acter of  the  people  to  whom  it  has  been  adapted. 
The  most  perfect  code  of  laws  in  the  abstract  is 
unavailing  and  useless,  if  not  congenial  to  the  dis- 
positions and  habits  of  those  for  whom  it  is  formed ; 
and,  without  keeping  this  in  view,  we  might  be  apt 
to  deny  to  the  criminal  laws  of  China  the  share  of 
praise  to  which  they  are  justly  entitled,  after  ma- 
king due  abatement  for  their  plain  and  undeniable 
defects.     The  following  testimony  in  their  favour, 


PENAL  CODE  OP  CHINA.        223 

from  a  very  able  critique*  on  Sir  George  Staunton's 
version  of  the  Leu-lee,  must  be  considered  as  praise 
of  a  higii  kind : — "  The  most  remarkable  thing  in 
this  code  is  its  great  reasonableness,  clearness,  and 
consistency;  the  business-like  brevity  and  direct- 
ness of  the  various  provisions,  and  the  plainness 
and  moderation  of  the  language  in  which  they  are 
expressed.  There  is  nothing  here  of  the  monstrous 
verbiage  of  most  other  Asiatic  productions ;  none  of 
the  superstitious  deUration,  the  miserable  incohe- 
rence, the  tremendous  nonsequUurs  and  eternal  rep- 
etitions of  those  oracular  performances  ;  nothing 
even  of  the  turgid  adulation,  the  accumulated  epi- 
thets, and  fatiguing  self-praise  of  other  Eastern  des- 
potisms ;  but  a  clear,  concise,  and  distinct  series  of 
enactments,  savouring  throughout  of  practical  judg- 
ment and  European  good  sense,  and,  if  not  always 
conformable  to  our  improved  notions  of  expediency 
in  tliis  country,  in  general  approaching  to  them 
more  nearly  than  the  codes  of  most  other  nations." 
After  this  fair  tribute,  the  evident  defects  of  the 
system,  being  in  some  measure  those  of  the  state 
of  society  in  which  it  originated,  may  be  pointed 
out.  There  is,  in  the  lirst  place,  a  constant  med- 
dling with,  and  anxiety  to  compel  the  performance 
of,  those  relative  duties  which  are  better  left  to  the 
operation  of  any  other  sanctions  than  positive  laws. 
Tlie  evil  of  this  perpetual  interference  of  the  law 
to  enforce  the  practice  of  virtues,  which  in  great 
measure  cease  to  be  such  on  being  made  compul- 
sory, is  to  diminish  their  beneficial  influence  on  the 
mind  ;  and  it  is  on  the  same  principle  that  compul- 
sory charity,  even,  has  been  condemned  (though 
without  sufficient  reason),  as  it  exists  among  us  in 
tlie  instance  of  the  poor-laws.  The  Chinese  carry 
tiieir  care  beyond  this  life  :  for  any  person  who  is 
convicted  of  neglecting  his  occasional  visits  to  the 

*  Edinburgh  Review,  Augnaat,  1810. 


224  THE  CHINESE. 

tomls  of  his  ancestors  is  subject  to  punishment.  A 
second  defect  which  we  may  notice  is  that  minute 
attention  to  trifles,  and  that  excessive  care  to  pro- 
vide for  every  possible  shade  of  difterence  that  may 
arise  between  one  case  and  another,  w^hich  is  so  op- 
posed to  the  European  maxim,  "  de  minimis  non  cu- 
rat lex.'"'  The  Chinese,  however,  still  stop  short  of 
the  Hindoo  institutes  of  Menu,  which  provide  for 
some  rare  and  singular  contingences.  For  instance, 
the  inheritance  of  a  son  being  a  whole,  and  that  of 
a  daughter  a  half,  there  is  a  peculiar  sagacity  and 
foresight  in  directing  that  the  portion  of  an  her- 
maphrodite shall  be  half  of  the  one,  and  half  of  the 
other,  or  three  fourths  !  A  third  defect  is  the  occa- 
sional manifestation  of  a  jealous  fear,  on  the  part 
of  the  government,  lest,  in  the  execution  of  its 
enactments,  the  judge  should  ever  find  himself  im- 
peded or  hampered  by  too  great  clearness  of  defini- 
tion, or  the  subject  derive  too  much  protection  from 
the  distinct  statement  of  crime  and  punishment. 
Hence  those  vague  generalities  by  which  the  bene- 
fits of  a  w^ritten  code  are  in  a  great  measure  annull- 
ed. The  following  enactment  is  a  specimen  : — 
"  Whoever  is  guilty  of  improper  conduct,  and  such  as 
is  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  the  laws,  though  not  a 
breach  of  any  specific  article,  shall  be  punished  at 
the  least  with  forty  blows ;  and,  when  the  impro- 
priety is  of  a  serious  nature,  with  eighty  blows." 
The  Chinese  may  justly  say  that  it  is  "difficult  to 
escape  from  the  net  of  the  law,"  when  its  meshes 
are  thus  closed  against  the  exit  of  the  minutest  of 
the  fry. 

One  feature  of  the  criminal  code,  inseparable  from 
the  nature  of  the  government  from  which  it  sprang, 
is  the  remorseless  and  unrelenting  cruelty  and  injus- 
tice which  mark  all  its  provisions  against  the  crime 
of  treason.  Nothing  perhaps  could  more  strongly 
show  the  different  tempers  of  despotism  and  free- 
dom, than  the  contrast  betw^een  the  Chinese  law  of 


MERITS  AND  DEFECTS.  225 

high  treason  and  our  own.  In  China,  every  species 
of  advantage  and  protection  afforded  to  the  crim- 
inal, in  ordinary  cases  of  a  capital  nature,  is  taken 
away  from  the  traitor ;  in  England,  every  possible 
safeguard  is  afforded  him.  It  is  well  known  that, 
with  us,  the  prisoner  must  be  furnished,  at  least  ten 
days  before  his  trial,  with  a  copy  of  his  endictment, 
a  list  of  witnesses,  and  a  list  of  the  panel,  or  those 
from  whom  the  jury  are  to  be  chosen.  Then,  again, 
he  may  challenge  or  object  to  as  many  as  thirty-five 
of  the  panel  in  making  up  the  jury ;  he  cannot  be 
convicted  with  less  than  two  legal  witnesses ;  and 
he  may  employ  counsel  in  his  defence.  Now,  in 
China,  not  a  single  circumstance  of  indulgence  or 
safety  to  the  criminal,  in  capital  cases,  is  ever  stated 
throughout  the  whole  code,  without  this  addition, 
"  except  in  cases  of  high  treason."  The  slenderness 
of  the  protection  is  only  to  be  paralleled  by  the  bar- 
barity of  the  punishment,  and,  as  in  other  absolute 
despotisms,  the  innocent  family  of  the  offender  is 
consigned  to  destruction.*  In  1803,  an  attempt  was 
made  on  the  life  of  the  emperor  by  a  single  assassin. 
He  was  condemned  to  a  lingering  death,  and  his 
sons,  "  being  of  a  tender  age,"  to  be  strangled ! 
Going  back  to  the  patriarchal  origin  of  the  govern- 
ment, the  Chinese  derive  a  sanction  for  their  law  of 
treason  from  their  sacred  books.  These  enjoin  it 
on  a  son  to  pursue  the  author  of  his  father's  death 
to  extremity ;  and  Confucius  himself  tells  him  "  not 
to  live  under  the  same  heaven  with  the  slayer  of  his 
father."  The  extension  of  this  rule  to  the  sovereign 
is,  in  the  mind  of  every  Chinese,  a  matter  of  course. 
The  arrangement  of  the  penal  code  is  extremely 

*  Among  the  Persians  and  Macedonians,  not  only  the  crimi- 
nals convicted  of  treason,  but  all  their  relations  and  friends, 
were  put  to  death.  The  posterity  of  Marius's  faction  were  dis- 
qualified, by  a  law  of  Sylla,  from  advancing  themselves  by  their 
own  merit  to  estates  and  offices.— Force's  Considerations  on  the 
Law  of  Forfeiture. 


226  THE  CHINESE. 

methodical  and  lucid.  The  first  head  is  composed 
principally  of  general  definitions  and  explanations  in 
reference  to  the  whole  code  ;  and  the  six  following, 
which  constitute  the  body  of  the  work,  correspond 
exactly  to  the  Six  Supreme  Boards  or  Tribunals  at 
Peking,  being  in  fact  the  best  illustrations  of  the 
respective  duties  and  functions  of  those  councils. 
In  that  light  they  may  be  briefly  presented  to  the 
reader. 

The  division  concerning  the  Administration  of  Civil 
Offices  corresponds  to  the  first  of  the  Supreme  Tri- 
bunals before  noticed,  whose  title  may  be  expressed 
by  "  the  Board  of  Civil  Appointments."  Its  two 
books  treat,  1.  Of  the  System  of  Government.  2. 
Of  the  Conduct  of  Officers. 

The  next  comprehends  Fiscal  and  Statistical  Laios, 
and  answers  to  the  Board  of  Revenue  at  Peking. 
Its  seven  books  comprise,  1.  The  Enrolment  of  the 
People.  2.  Lands  and  Tenements.  3.  Marriage  (in 
its  statistical  relations).  4.  Public  Property.  5. 
Duties  and  Customs.  6.  Private  Property.  7.  Sales 
and  Markets. 

The  third  treats  of  the  Ritual  Laws^  and  comes  of 
course  under  the  Tribunals  of  Rites  and  Ceremonies. 
The  two  books  of  this  division  treat,  1.  Of  Sacred 
Rites.     2.    Miscellaneous  Observances. 

The  division  concerning  Military  Laws  belongs  to 
the  Tribunal  of  War,  or  Military  Board,  and  contains 
five  books.  1.  The  Protection  of  the  Palace.  2. 
The  Regulation  of  the  Army.  3.  The  Protection 
of  the  Frontier.  4  Military  Horses  and  Cattle, 
5.  Expresses  and  Public  Posts. 

The  next  comprehends  Criminal  Laws,  and  per^ 
tains  to  the  "  Tribunal  of  Punishments,"  being  by 
far  the  most  considerable  portion,  and  comprising 
eleven  books.  The  principal  heads  are,  Treason, 
Robbery,  and  Theft,  Murder  and  Homicide  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  Criminal  Intercourse,  Disturbing  Graves, 
Quarrelling  and  Fighting,  and  Incendiarism. 


PUNISHMENTS.  227 

The  last  division  of  the  code,  treating  of  Puhlic 
Works^  and  coming  under  the  appropriate  Board  at 
Peking,  contains  onlj''  tAvo  books.  1.  PubUc  Build- 
ings.    2.  Public  Ways. 

With  regard  to  the  punishments  by  which  these 
laws  are  enforced,  it  is  important  to  observe  that 
very  unfounded  notions  have  been  prevalent  as  to 
the  caprice  or  cruelty  which  can  be  exercised  to- 
wards criminals.  Some  vulgar  daubs,  commonly 
sold  at  Canton,  and  representing  the  punishment  of 
the  damned  in  the  Buddhist  hell,  have  been  absurdly 
styled  "  Chinese  punishments,"  and  confounded 
with  the  true  ones.  There  is  in  the  first  division  of 
the  code  a  very  strict  definition  of  all  the  legal  pains 
and  penalties  to  which  the  subject  is  liable,  and  even 
the  application  of  torture  in  forcing  evidence  is 
strictly  limited  in  its  extent  and  appUcation.  His- 
tory indeed  relates  the  extraordinary  contrivances 
of  cruelty  adopted  by  different  tyrants  previous  to 
the  formation  of  a  distinct  and  written  code ;  but 
this  is  common  to  nearly  all  countries. 

The  most  general  instrument  of  punishment  is 
the  bamboo,  whose  dimensions  are  exactly  defined. 
The  number  of  blows,  attached  gradatim  Avith  such 
precision  to  every  individual  offence,  ansAvers  the 
purpose  of  a  scale  or  measurement  of  the  degrees 
of  crime  ;  and  this  punishment  being  often  commu- 
table  for  fine  or  otherwise,  the  apparent  quantity  of 
flagellation  is  of  course  greater  than  the  real.  A 
small  hollow  cylinder,  full  of  tallies  or  slips  of  A\'Ood, 
stands  before  the  judge,  and  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  offence  he  takes  out  a  certain  number,  and 
throws  them  on  the  floor  of  the' court.  These  are 
taken  up  by  the  attendants,  and  five  bloAvs  nomi- 
nally, but  in  reality  only  four,  inflicted  for  each.* 
This  mitigation  goes  to  the  emperor's  credit,  being 
called  "  imperial  favour,"  and  it  is  in  strict  conform- 

*  The  ceremony  of  the  bamboo  is  described  in  the  "  Forttt' 
nate  Union,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  62. 


228  THE    CHINESE. 

ity  with  the  Chinese  maxim,  that,  "  in  enacting  laws, 
rigour  is  necessary;  in  executing  them,  mercy;"  al- 
though the  converse  has  been  of  late  generally 
maintained  among  ourselves — in  theory  at  least. 

The  next  punishment  is  the  Kea,  or  Cangue,  which 
has  been  called  the  wooden  collar,  being  a  species 
of  walking  pillory,  in  which  the  prisoner  is  paraded, 
with  his  offence  inscribed.  It  is  sometimes  worn 
for  a  month  together,  and  as  the  hand  cannot  be  put 
to  the  mouth,  the  wearer  must  be  fed  by  others. 
After  this  comes,  in  the  first  place,  temporary  ban- 
ishment, to  a  distance  not  exceeding  fifty  leagues 
from  the  prisoner's  home ;  and  then  -exile  beyond 
the  Chinese  frontier,  either  temporary  or  for  life. 
Tartars  are  punished  by  an  equal  number  of  blows 
with  the  whip  instead  of  the  bamboo,  and,  in  ordi- 
nary cases,  with  the  Cangue  instead  of  banishment. 

The  three  capital  punishments  are,  1.  strangula- 
tion ;  2.  for  greater  crimes,  decollation  ;  3.  for  trea- 
son, parricide  (which  ranks  as  petit  treason),  sac- 
rilege, &c.,  that  mode  of  execution  called  Ling-chy, 
"  a  disgraceful  and  lingering  death,"  which  Euro- 
peans have  somewhat  incorrectly  styled  cutting  into 
ten  thousand  pieces.  The  heads  of  robbers  and  mur- 
derers are  pubUcly  exposed  in  a  cage  suspended  on 
a  pole. 

Chinese  prisons  are  very  severe,  and,  as  there  is 
no  Habeas  corpus  Act,  the  most  frequent  instruments 
of  judicial  injustice  are  prolonged  imprisonments. 
Nothing  tends  more  effectually  to  deter  from  crime 
than  the  prospect  of  incarceration  in  those  miserable 
abodes,  which  the  Chinese  emphatically  style  Ty- 
3^0,  or  hell^  an4  the  severity  of  which  is  increased 
by  the  confinement  being  solitary.  Women  in  or- 
dinary cases  enjoy  the  fortunate  exemption  of  being 
placed,  as  criminals,  in  the  custody  of  their  nearest 
relations,  who  are  answerable  for  them,  and  in  this 
manner  they  escape  the  farther  contamination  of 
vice  in  a  prison.     The  legal  mode  of  torture,  in 


.u    ,^  r^:^-'.  -  \ 


PRIVILEGES    AND    EXEMPTIONS.  231 

forcing  evidence,  is  to  squeeze  the  ankles  or  the  fin- 
gers between  three  sticks,  tied  triangularly;  the 
former  being  applied  to  male,  and  the  latter  to  fe- 
male prisoners.  Oaths  are  never  required,  nor  even 
admitted,  in  judicial  proceedings ;  but  very  severe 
punishments  are  attached  to  falsehood  in  evidence. 

Ten  privileged  classes  are  enumerated  in  the  intro- 
ductory division  of  the  code,  who  cannot  be  tried 
and  punished  without  a  special  reference  to  the  em- 
peror. The  grounds  of  exemption  (which,  as  usual, 
are  denied  in  treason)  consist,  generally,  in  relation- 
ship to  the  imperial  line,  or  in  high  character  and 
station.  Throughout  cases  where  the  crime  is  less 
than  capital,  any  person  under  fifteen  years  of  age, 
or  above  seventy^  is  allowed  to  redeem  himself  from 
punishment  by  a  fine.  A  species  of  king^s  evidence 
is  permitted  in  cases  of  thieving  and  robbery,  with 
a  view  to  the  recovery  of  the  lost  goods :  in  fact, 
something  more  than  mere  pardon  is  offered  ;  as  the 
accomplice  who  informs  is  entitled  to  the  reward  at- 
tached to  the  discoveiy  of  the  criminals.  This, 
however,  extends  only  to  the^r^;'  offence. 

The  law  distinguishes,  in  most  cases,  between 
principals  and  accessaries  before  the  fact,  punishing 
the  latter  one  degree  less  severely  than  the  former ; 
and  in  this  respect  it  differs  from  our  own  system, 
by  which  accessaries  before  the  fact  are  punished  as 
principals ;  after  the  fact,  merely  as  concealers  of 
what  they  ought  to  have  revealed.  In  treason,  how- 
ever, as  usual,  the  Chinese  law  punishes  both  prin- 
cipals and  accessaries,  and  their  innocent  relations, 
with  a  sweeping  severity.  Where  the  safety  of  the 
emperor  or  the  stability  of  the  government  is  not 
involved,  milder  and  more  benevolent  traits  are  fre- 
quently discernible  in  this  code.  With  a  view,  for 
instance,  to  promote  kindred  and  domestic  ties,  it  is 
provided  that  relatives  and  servants,  living  under  the 
same  roof,  shall  in  ordinary  cases  be  held  innocent, 
though  they  conceal  the  offences  of  their  fellow-in- 


232  THE  CHINESE. 

mates,  or  even  assist  in  effecting  their  escape .  This 
was  probably  enacted  in  conformity  with  that  pre- 
cept of  Confucius  : — "  The  father  may  conceal  the 
offences  of  his  son,  and  the  son  those  of  his  father — 
uprightness  consists  with  this." — {Hea-Lun,  ch.  13.) 

The  desire  entertained  and  professed  by  the  Chi- 
nese government,  that  its  subjects  should  be  gener- 
ally acquainted  mth  the  laws  of  the  empire,  has 
given  rise  to  something  not  unlike  our  benefit  of 
clergy.  It  is  enacted  that  all  those  private  individ- 
uals who  are  found  capable  of  explaining  the  nature, 
or  comprehending  the  objects  of  the  laws,  shall  re- 
ceive pardon  for  all  otTences  resulting  from  accident 
(and  not  malice),  or  imputable  to  them  only  in  con- 
sequence of  the  guilt  of  otliers,  provided  it  be  the 
first  offence,  and  not  implicated  with  any  act  of  trea- 
son or  rebellion.  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
sixth  division  of  the  code  is. devoted  to  providing 
for  justice  in  the  administration  of  legal  punish- 
ments, and  establishing  safeguards  for  the  subject. 
Severe  penalties  are  denounced  against  officers  of 
government  for  unjust  imprisonment,,  delay  of  jus- 
tice, cruelty,  &c.  A  species  of  bail  is  allowed  to 
minor  offenders  in  case  of  sickness,  and  they  are 
exempted,  or  released  from  imprisonment,  on  suffi- 
cient security  being  given  for  their  return.  Torture 
is  forbidden  to  be  exercised  on  persons  above  sev- 
enty, or  under  fifteen,  as  well  as  on  those  labouring 
under  permanent  disease.  Women  can  never  be 
imprisoned  except  for  capital  offences,  or  for  adul- 
tery. Torture  and  death  cannot  be  inflicted  on  a 
pregnant  woman  until  one  hundred  days  after  her 
confinement,  in  consideration,  we  presume,  of  the 
infant. 

The  condition  of  slavery  in  China  is  broadly 
marked  by  the  absence  of  rights  and  immunities 
pertaining  to  those  who  are  subjects,  without  being 
slaves.  The  law  regards  the  former  class  with  less 
care,  and  affords  less  protection  to  them,  than  to 


ROBBERY.  233 

their  masters.  Every  offence  is  aggravated  or  di- 
minished in  its  penalty,  according  as  it  is  committed 
by  a  slave  towards  a  freeman,  or  vice  versa.  For  a 
slave  to  kill  his  master,  is  punished  with  lingering 
death,  as  petit  treason ;  while  the  converse  of  the 
case  is  not  even  capital.  AYe  find  the  same  distinc- 
tions existing  in  the  early  history  of  Europe,  in  re- 
spect to  the  comparative  personal  rights  of  freemen 
and  slaves.  But,  besides  domestic  slavery,  it  seems 
that  for  some  infractions  of  the  laws  a  whole  fam- 
ily is  sometimes  condemned  to  pubhc  servitude,  as 
appears  from  Section  CXL,  of  the  penal  code.  Per- 
sonal service,  too,  is  frequently  levied  by  the  gov- 
ernment as  a  species  of  taxation  on  the  lowest  class, 
or  that  which  has  nothing  but  its  labour  to  contrib- 
ute. The  comparative  uncertainty  of  this,  notwith- 
standing sundry  enactments  against  its  abuse,  is  a 
great  evil ;  and  both  our  embassies  had  reason  to  re- 
gret that  tliey  were  the  innocent  occasions  of  much 
oppression  and  ill-usage  to  the  poor  people  who 
were  pressed  by  the  mandarins  to  track  their  boats. 
Robbery,  with  the  concerted  use  of  offensive 
weapons,  is  punished  with  death,  however  small 
may  be  the  amount  taken;  and,  if  a  burglar  be  killed 
by  him  whose  house  he  invades,  it  is  deemed  an  act 
of  justifiable  homicide.  An  intimation  conveyed  to 
the  local  magistrate  of  Macao  that  the  English  were 
aware  of  this  part  of  the  law,  and  prepared  to  take 
advantage  of  it,  had  the  good  effect  of  preventing 
night  robberies,  which  until  then  had  been  frequent. 
Simple  stealing  is  punished  only  with  the  bamboo 
and  with  exile,  on  a  scale  proportioned  to  the 
amount ;  and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  death  is 
never  inflicted,  whatever  may  be  the  value  of  the 
thing  stolen.  Theft  among  near  relations  is  pun- 
ished with  less  severity  than  ordinary  stealing ;  and 
Sir  George  Staunton  explains  this,  by  its  being  the 
violation  of  a  right  not  perfectly  exclusive,  since 
the  thief,  according  to  the  Chinese  system  of  club- 
U2 


234  THE  CHINESE. 

bing  in  families,  being  part  owner  of  the  thing  sto- 
len, infringes  only  that  qualified  interest  which  each 
individual  has  in  his  share  of  the  family  property. 
Consistently  enough  with  this  principle,  we  may  add 
that  the  thief  seems  to  be  more  severely  punished  in 
proportion  as  the  relationship  becomes  more  distant, 
as  having  a  smaller  share  of  the  property,  and  there- 
fore violating  a  more  exclusive  right.  But  then  it 
must  be  remarked  that  the  nile  does  not  apply  to 
servants  stealing  from  their  masters,  a  crime  which 
in  China  is  also  punished  less  severely  than  ordinary 
theft.  The  case  is  quite  different  among  us  in  Eng- 
land, and  with  apparent  reason,  on  the  principle  of 
its  being  a  violation  of  necessary  confidence,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  violation  of  property. 

The  Chinese  law  of  homicide  derives  additional  in- 
terest from  the  circumstance  of  British  subjects  hav- 
ing on  several  occasions  become  obnoxious  to  it  at 
Canton,  and  from  its  forming  a  very  important  sub- 
ject of  consideration  in  the  establishment  of  our 
novel  relations  with  the  local  government  at  that 
place.  With  its  characteristic  love  of  order  and 
horror  of  tumults,  the  national  code  treats  affrays 
with  unusual  severity.  Killing  in  an  aff'ray,  and 
killing  with  a  regular  weapon,  without  reference  to 
any  intent  either  expressed  or  implied,  are  punished 
with  strangling.  Killing  by  pure  accident,  that  is, 
not  in  an  affray,  nor  with  a  \^Rpon,  and  where 
there  was  no  previous  knowledge  of  probable  con- 
sequences, is  redeemable  by  a  fine  of  about  4/.  to 
the  relations  of  the  deceased. 

With  regard  to  affrays,  it  must  however  be  observ- 
ed, that  a  limit  is  allowed  to  the  period  of  responsi- 
bility, in  all  cases  where  the  homicide  was  evidently 
not  preconcerted.  When  a  person  is  wounded  with 
only  the  hands  or  a  stick,  twenty  days  constitute 
the  term  of  responsibility,  after  which  the  death  of 
the  sufferer  does  not  make  the  offence  capital. 
With  a  sharp  instrument,  fire,  or  scalding  water,  the 


CHARACTER    OF    CODE.  235 

term  is  extended  to  thirty  days.  In  case  of  gun- 
shot wounds,  to  forty  days  ;  of  broken  bones  or 
very  violent  wounds,  fifty  days.  As  the  translator 
of  the  Leu-lee  observes,  the  judicious  application  of 
the  knowledge  of  this  particular  law  once  contrib- 
uted to  extricate  the  company's  servants  in  China 
from  veiy  serious  difficulties  in  the  case  of  a  native 
killed  by  a  sailor.  The  situation  of  the  English  at 
Canton  in  respect  to  homicides  will  be  particularly 
noticed  in  another  place. 

Fathers  have  virtually  the  power  of  life  and  death 
over  their  children ;  for,  even  if  they  kill  them  de- 
signedly, they  are  subject  to  only  the  chastisement 
of  the  bamboo,  and  a  year's  banishment ;  if  struck 
by  them,  to  no  punishment  at  all.  The  penalty  for 
striking  parents,  or  for  cursing  them,  is  death,  as 
among  the  Hebrews. — (Exod.  xxi.)  In  practice,  it 
does  not  appear  that  this  absolute  power  bestowed 
on  fathers  is  productive  of  evil ;  the  natural  feeling 
being,  upon  the  whole,  a  sufficient  security  against 
its  abuse. 

The  law  of  China  is  so  tenacious  of  order,  and  so 
anxious  to  prevent  the  chance  of  homicide  from 
quarrels,  that  some  punishment  is  attached  to  the 
mere  act  of  striking  another  with  the  hand  or  foot ; 
— not  as  a  private,  but  as  a  pubhc  offence.  Though 
of  course  this  cannot,  in  the  generality  of  cases,  be 
acted  upon,  it  may  account  partly  for  the  common 
spectacle  of  two  Chinese  jumping  about,  and  vocifer- 
ating their  mutual  reproaches  for  an  incredible  time 
without  coming  to  blows.  This  noisy  gesticulation 
seems  to  answer  the  purpose  of  a  moral  safety-valve^ 
and  is  certainly  more  harmless  than  actual  hostili- 
ties, though  perhaps  more  disagreeable  to  the  neigh- 
bours, inasmuch  as  it  lasts  longer.  The  responsible 
elder  of  the  village  or  district  (divided  always  into 
tithings  and  hundreds)  often  interposes  on  these  oc- 
casions, and  restores  quiet.  The  law  also  provides 
some  punishment  for  opprobrious  language,  on  the 


236  THE  CHINESE. 

ground  of  its  having  "  a  tendency  to  produce  quar- 
rels and  affrays;"  or,  as  assumed  by  the  English 
law  in  the  criminal  prosecution  for  libel,  tending  to 
a  breach  of  the  hing\'i  peace. 

That  portion  of  the  Chinese  code  which  relates  to 
fiscal  or  statistical  matters,  to  the  tenure  of  lands 
and  to  inheritance,  will  be  noticed  elsewhere ;  but 
we  may  mention  the  subject  of  debts  in  this  place. 
A  period  is  allowed  hy  law,  on  the  expiration  of 
which  the  debtor  becomes  liable  to  the  bamboo  if 
his  obligations  are  not  discharged.  A  creditor 
sometimes  quarters  himself  and  his  family  on  his 
debtor,  and,  provided  that  this  is  done  without  vio- 
lence and  tumult,  the  civil  authority  does  not  inter- 
fere. One  of  the  insolvent  Hong  merchants  had  in 
this  manner  to  entertain  some  of  his  Chinese  cred- 
itors, until  the  representations  to  the  government  of 
those  Europeans  Avho  had  claims  against  him  occa- 
sioned his  banishment  into  Tartary ;  it  being  a  much 
greater  offence  to  owe  money  to  a  foreigner  than 
to  a  native.  The  true  reason  of  this  is,  the  anxiety 
of  that  cautious  government  to  prevent  the  recur- 
rence of  the  trouble  which  it  has  in  former  times 
experienced,  from  the  embarrassing  claims  and  de- 
mands of  strangers,  and  no  real  sense  of  justice 
towards  them. 

The  able  critique  on  the  code,  which  we  have  al- 
ready quoted,  proceeds  to  say,  "  When  we  turn  from 
the  ravings  of  the  Zendavesta,  or  the  Puranas,  to 
the  tone  of  sense  and  of  business  of  this  Chinese 
collection,  we  seem  to  be  passing  from  darkness  to 
light — from  the  drivellings  of  dotage  to  the  exercise 
of  an  improved  understanding :  and  redundant  and 
minute  as  these  laws  are  in  many  particulars,  we 
scarcely  know  any  European  code  that  is  at  once 
so  copious  and  so  consistent,  or  that  is  nearly  so 
free  from  intricacy,  bigotry,  and  fiction.  In  every 
thing  relating  to  political  freedom,  or  individual  in- 
dependence, it  is,  indeed,  wofully  defective ;  but  for 


PRACTICAL  EFFECTS.  237 

the  repression  of  disorder,  and  the  gentle  coercion 
of  a  vast  population,  it  appears  to  us  to  be,  in  gen- 
eral, equally  mild  and  efficacious."  The  defects  are 
of  course  inherent  in  all  despotisms,  under  which 
the  legislator  is  not  embarrassed  by  those  consid- 
erations which  in  free  states  render  every  new  Ihw 
a  problem,  involving  the  greatest  quantity  of  good 
to  the  public  at  the  least  expense  of  liberty  to  the 
individual ;  and  which,  in  countries  where  there  is 
more  liberty  than  moral  instruction,  or  where  men 
are  better  acquainted  with  their  rights  than  with 
their  duties,  nuist  always  render  the  business  of  gov- 
ernment a  difficult  task. 

It  has  been  reasonably  proposed  by  Sir  George 
Staunton  to  estimate  the  Chinese  legislation  by  its 
results,  "  to  judge  of  the  tree  by  its  fruits,  some  of 
which  (he  observes)  we  shall  find  to  be  v/holly  in- 
consistent with  the  hypothesis  of  a  very  bad  gov- 
ernment, or  a  very  vicious  state  of  society."  On 
this  subject  he  quotes  his  colleague*  in  the  commis- 
sion of  the  last  British  embassy,  "  whose  extensive 
acquaintance  with  Persia  and  India  rendered  him  a 
peculiarly  competent  judge  of  comparative  merit  in 
this  case.  He  pronounces  China  superior  to  the 
other  countries  of  Asia,  both  in  the  arts  of  govern- 
ment, and  the  general  aspect  of  society ;  and  adds, 
that  the  laws  are  more  generally  known,  and  more 
equally  administered;  that  those  examples  of  op- 
pression, accompanied  with  infliction  of  barbarous 
punishment,  which  offend  the  eye  and  distress  the 
feelings  of  the  most  hurried  traveller  in  other  Asiat- 
ic countries,  are  scarcely  to  be  met  with  in  China ; 
that  the  proportion  which  the  middling  orders  bear 
to  the  other  classes  of  the  community  appeared  con- 
siderable ;  that,  compared  with  Turkey,  Persia,  and 


*  Mr.  Ellis,  now  ambassador  to  Persia,  with  whom  the  writer 
of  this  travelled  through  China,  and  always  heard  him  express 
the  same  sentiments. 


238  THE    CHINESE. 

parts  of  India,  an  impression  was  produced  highly 
favourable  to  the  comparative  situation  of  the  lower 
orders," 

"These  statements,"  adds  Sir  George,  "proceed- 
ing from  a  writer  whose  general  opinions  are  cer- 
tainly not  very  favourable  to  the  government  or 
people  of  China,  have  the  greater  weight.  I  should 
be  disposed  to  add  my  own  testimony  to  the  same 
facts  and  in  the  same  spirit.  In  the  course  of  our 
journey  through  the  Chinese  empire,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  that  embassy,  I  can  recall  to  my  recollec- 
tion (the  seaport  of  Canton  of  course  excepted)  but 
very  few  instances  of  beggary  or  abject  misery 
among  the  lower  classes,  or  of  splendid  extrava- 
gance among  the  higher ;  and  I  conceived  myself 
enabled  to  trace  almost  universally  throughout 
China  the  unequivocal  signs  of  an  industrious,  thri- 
ving, and  contented  people." 

Chinese  law,  with  all  its  faults,  is  comparative 
perfection  when  contrasted  with  that  of  Japan,  as 
described  by  Kcempfer.  "  I  have  often  wondered," 
says  he,  "  at  the  brief  and  laconic  style  of  those 
tablets  which  are  hung  up  on  the  roads  to  notify  the 
emperor's  pleasure.  There  is  no  reason  given  how 
it  came  about  that  such  a  law  was  made ;  no  men- 
tion of  the  lawgiver's  view  and  intention ;  nor  any 
graduated  penalty  put  upon  the  violation  thereof. 
The  bare  transgression  of  the  law  is  capital,  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  degree  or  heinousness  of  the 
crime,  or  the  favourable  circumstances  the  offend- 
er's case  may  be  attended  with."  Some  such  com- 
parison, perhaps,  suggested  the  complacent  reflec- 
tions of  Tienkeeshe,  a  Chinese,  who  thus  wrote  :— 
"  I  felicitate  myself  that  I  was  born  in  China !  It 
constantly  occurs  to  me,  what  if  I  had  been  bom 
beyond  the  sea,  in  some  remote  part  of  the  earth, 
where  the  cold  freezes,  or  the  heat  scorches ;  where 
the  people  are  clothed  with  the  leaves  of  plants, 
eat  wood,  dwell  in  the  wilderness,  lie  in  holes  of  the 


ClUNESE    MAXIM.  239 

rarth,  are  far  removed  from  the  converting  maxims 
of  the  ancient  kings,  and  are  ignorant  of  the  domes- 
tic relations.  Though  born  as  one  of  the  generation 
of  men,  I  should  not  have  been  different  from  a 
beast.  But  how  happily  I  have  been  born  in  China! 
I  have  a  house  to  live  in,  have  drink  and  food,  and 
comm.odious  furniture.  I  have  clothing  and  caps, 
and  infinite  blessings.  Truly  the  highest  felicity  is 
mine."* 

The  countiy' cannot,  upon  the  whole,  be  very  ill- 
governed,  w^hose  subjects  write  in  this  style.  But 
it  is  a  still  more  remarkable  fact,  that  the  following 
is  a  popular  maxim  of  the  Chinese,  and  one  fre- 
quently quoted  by  them  : — "  To  violate  the  law  is 
the  same  crime  in  the  ernperor  as  in  a  subject." 
This  plainly  intimates  that  there  are  certain  sanc- 
tions Avhicli  the  people  in  general  look  upon  as  su- 
perior to  the  v/ill  of  the  sovereign  himself.  These 
are  contained  in  their  sacred  books,  whose  principle 
is  literally,  salus  populi  suprema  lex  ;  as  we  shall  see 
when  we  come  to  consider  them  hereafter.  How- 
ever much  tliis  principle  may  at  times  be  violated 
under  the  pressure  of  a  foreign  Tartar  dominion,  it 
nevertheless  continues  to  be  recognised,  and  must 
doubtless  exercise  more  or  less  influence  on  the 
conduct  of  the  government. 

*  Chinese  Gleaner,  vol.  L,  p.  190, 


240  THE   CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


CHARACTER  AND  MANNERS. 

Chinese  appear  at  Canton  in  their  worst  phase. — Instance  of 
Gratitude. — Good  and  bad  Traits. — Pride  and  Ignorance.— 
Age  and  high  Station  most  honoured. — Regard  to  Kindrec' 
and  Birthplace.— Real  extent  of  Infanticide.— Phj'sical  Char- 
acteristics.—  Personal  Appearance.  —  Caprices  of  National 
Taste. — Primitive  Features. — Degeneracy  of  Imperial  Kin- 
dred.—Highest  Honours  open  to  Talent  and  Learning.— Ab- 
sence of  Ostentation. — Condition  of  Female  Sex. — But  one 
legal  Wife. — Marriage. — Ceremonies  attending  it. — Children. 
— p]ducation. — Funeral  Rites. — Periods  of  Mourning. 

Most  of  the  good  and  bad  traits  of  the  Chinese 
character  may,  as  usual,  be  tracei  to  the  advantages 
or  faults  of  their  social  system.  If  i  liose  principles 
of  government  and  those  laws,  of  which  we  have 
given  a  slight  sketch,  have  the  effect  of  imbuing 
them  with  some  of  the  vices  connected  with  timid^ 
ity  of  character,  which  are  particularlj?^  disesteemed 
in  Europe,  it  is  only  fair  to  give  them  credit,  on  the 
other  hand,  for  the  valuable  qualities  which  they  do 
really  possess.  The  Chinese  have,  upon  the  whole, 
been  under-estimated,  or,  rather,  unfairly  despised, 
on  the  score  of  their  moral  attributes.  The  reason 
of  this  has  probably  been,  the  extremely  unfavour- 
able aspect  in  which  they  have  appeared  to  the  gen- 
erality of  observers  at  Canton :  just  as  if  any  one 
should  attempt  to  form  an  estimate  of  our  national 
character  in  England,  from  that  peculiar  phase  un- 
der which  it  may  present  itself  at  some  commercial 
seaport. 

It  is,  in  fact,  a  matter  of  astonishment,  that  the 
Chinese  people  at  Canton  are  no  worse  than  we  find 


CHINESE  AT  CANTON.  241 

them.  They  are  well  acquainted  with  that  maxim 
of  their  government,  by  which  it  openly  professes 
to  "  rule  barbarians  by  misrule,  like  beasts,  and  not 
like  native  subjects  ;"  and  they  are  perpetually  sup- 
phed  by  the  local  authorities  with  every  motive  to 
behave  towards  strangers  as  if  they  were  really  a 
degraded  order  of  beings.  The  natural  consequence 
is,  that  their  conduct  to  Europeans  is  very  different 
from  their  conduct  among  themselves.  Except 
when  under  the  influence  of  either  interest  or  of 
fear,  they  are  often  haughty  and  insolent  to  stran- 
gers, as  well  as  fraudulent ;  and  such  is  the  effect 
of  opinion  among  them,  that  even  in  cases  where 
interest  may  persuade  them  to  servility,  this  will 
not  be  exhibited  in  the  presence  of  a  countryman, 
A  beggar  has  often  been  seen  who,  though  he  would 
bend  his  knee  very  readily  to  European  passengers 
when  unobserved,  refrained  altogether  from  it  while 
Chinese  were  passing  by.  It  was  some  time  before 
the  very  coolies,  the  lowest  class  of  servants,  would 
condescend  to  carry  a  lantern  before  a  European  at 
night ;  and  still  longer  before  they  could  be  induced, 
by  any  wages,  to  convey  him  in  a  sedan  even  at 
Macao,  where  it  is  permitted.  Is  it  surprising,  then, 
that  they  reconcile  it,  without  much  difficulty,  to 
their  feelings,  to  overreach  and  ill-use  occasionally 
these  creatures  of  an  inferior  rank,  who,  as  their 
government  phrases  it,  come  to  benefit  by  "  the 
transforming  influence  of  Chinese  civilization ;"  or, 
rather,  is  it  not  very  surprising  that  so  general  a 
course  of  honesty  and  good  faith,  and  so  many  in- 
stances of  kindness  and  generosity,  even,  have  been 
experienced  in  their  intercourse  with  us  ?  If  we 
deny  to  the  Chinese  their  fair  advantages,  on  a  view 
somewhat  more  extended  than  the  precincts  of  Can- 
ton afford,  and  if  we  condemn  them  ignorantly,  it 
is  the  precise  fault  which  we  have  most  to  censure 
on  their  part.  We  in  fact  become  as  illiberal  as 
themseh'es. 
Vol.  I.— X 


242  THE  CHINESE. 

The  following  anecdote,  from  a  raiscellaneoua 
volume*  by  Sir  George  Staunton,  is  a  favourable 
specimen  of  Chinese  character,  as  it  has  appeared 
even  at  Canton.  A  considerable  merchant  had 
some  dealings  with  an  American  trader,  who  at- 
tempted to  quit  the  port  without  discharging  his 
debt,  and  would  have  succeeded  but  for  the  spirit 
and  activity  of  a  young  officer  of  one  of  the  com- 
pany's ships.  He  boarded  the  American  vessel 
when  upon  the  point  of  sailing,  and,  by  his  remon- 
strances or  otherwise,  prevailed  on  the  American 
to  make  a  satisfactory  arrangement  with  his  cred- 
itor. In  acknowledgment  for  this  service,  the  Chi- 
nese merchant  purchased  from  the  young  officer,  in 
his  several  successive  voyages  to  China,  on  very  fa- 
vourable terms,  the  whole  of  his  commercial  ad- 
venture. He  might  thus  have  been  considered  to 
have  fulfilled  any  ordinary  claim  upon  his  gratitude  ; 
but  he  went  farther  than  this.  After  some  years  he 
expressed  his  surprise  to  the  officer  that  he  had  not 
yet  obtained  the  command  of  a  ship.  The  other 
replied,  that  it  was  a  lucrative  post,  which  could  be 
obtained  only  by  purchase,  and  at  an  expense  of 
some  thousand  pounds,  a  sum  wholly  out  of  his 
power  to  raise.  The  Chinese  merchant  said  he 
would  remove  that  difficulty,  and  immediately  gavo 
him  a  draught  for  the  amount,  to  be  repaid  at  his  con- 
venience. The  officer  died  on  his  voyage  home^ 
and  the  draught  was  never  presented ;  but  it  was 
drawn  on  a  house  of  great  respectability,  and  would 
have  been  duly  honoured. 

The  late  Dr.  Morrison  formed  a  very  fair  estimate 
of  a  people  with  whom  he  was  better  acquainted 
than  most  Europeans.  "  In  China,"  he  observes, 
"  there  is  much  to  blame,  but  something  to  learn. 
Education  is  there  made  as  general  as  possible,  and 
moral  instruction  is  ranked  above  physical."    The 

♦  Notices  of  China,  part  ii. 


GOOD  AND  BAD  TRAITS.  243 

consequence  is,  that  industry,  tranquillity,  and  con- 
tent are  unusually  prevalent  in  the  bulk  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  exceptions  to  this,  in  the  tumults  which 
arise  from  local  distress  in  limited  districts,  are  in 
some  measure  the  consequence  of  the  very  means 
taken  to  prevent  them.  The  Chinese  are  bad  politi- 
cal economists  :  the  government,  instead  of  allowing 
the  trade  in  grain  to  take  its  natural  course,  erects 
its  own  granaries,  in  which  there  is  much  inevitable 
abuse,  and  prohibits  the  business  of  the  great  corn- 
factor,  who,  in  consulting  his  own  interests,  would 
much  better  relieve  the  dearth  of  one  season  by  the 
redundancy  of  another.  The  people,  who  are  taught 
to  look  to  the  public  granaries  for  relief,  and  have 
been  led  by  their  patriarchal  theory  of  government 
to  refer  the  good  which  they  enjoy  to  the  emperor 
and  his  delegates,  very  naturally  attribute  the  evil 
which  they  suffer  to  the  same  quarters ;  and  the 
government,  aware  of  the  danger,  is  proportionately 
anxious  to  guard  against  it.  If  it  fails,  in  the  pur- 
suit of  an  erroneous  system,  there  is  no  room  for 
surprise. 

Notwithstanding  that  his  power  is  absolute,  the 
emperor  himself  on  all  occasions  endeavours  to 
prove  that  his  conduct  is  based  in  reason,  and  ori- 
ginates in  benevolence, — the  truth  of  the  argument 
being  of  course  a  distinct  affair.  From  the  habits 
in  which  they  are  brought  up,  as  well  as  from  the 
operation  of  certain  positive  laws  already  noticed, 
the  people  are  more  ready  to  reason  with  each 
other  than  to  resort  to  the  ultima  ratio  of  force. 
The  advantageous  features  of  their  character,  as 
mildness,  docility,  industry,  peaceableness,  subor- 
dination, and  respect  for  the  aged,  are  accompanied 
by  the  vices  of  specious  insincerity,  falsehood,  with 
mutual  distrust,  and  jealousy.  Lying  and  deceit, 
being  generally  the  refuge  of  the  weak  and  timid, 
have  been  held  in  Europe  to  be  the  most  disgrace- 
ful vices,  ever  since  the  influence  of  those  feudal 


244  THE  CHINESE. 

institutions,  under  which  strength  and  courage  were 
the  thing's  most  valued.  The  Chinese  at  any  time 
do  not  attach  the  same  degree  of  disgrace  to  deceit ; 
and  least  of  all  do  they  discountenance  it  towards 
Europeans  at  Canton.  A  true  calculation  of  their 
own  interest  makes  most  of  the  merchants  of  that 
place  sufficiently  scrupulous  in  their  commercial 
engagements,  but  on  all  other  points  "  the  foreign 
devil,"  as  they  call  him,  is  fair  game.  Many  a  Chi- 
nese of  Canton,  in  his  intercourse  with  a  stranger, 
would  seem  occasionally  to  have  an  abstract  love 
of  falsehood  and  trickery,  independently  of  any  thing 
that  he  can  gain  by  it ;  and  he  will  appear  some- 
times to  volunteer  a  lie,  when  it  would  be  just  the 
same  to  him  to  tell  the  tmth.  Mr.  Barrow  has  at- 
tributed their  national  insincerity  to  a  motive  which 
no  doubt  operates  with  the  higher  classes,  as  much 
as  an  ignorant  contempt,  and  a  mischievous  malig- 
nity, do  with  the  rabble.  "  As  a  direct  refusal,"  he 
observes,  "  to  any  request  would  betray  a  want  of 
good-breeding,  every  proposal  finds  their  immediate 
acquiescence  :  they  promise  without  hesitation,  bat 
generally  disappoint  by  the  invention  of  some  slight 
pretence  or  plausible  objection :  they  have  no 
proper  sense  of  the  obligations  of  truth."  This  ren- 
ders all  negotiations  with  them  on  public  matters 
almost  entirely  fruitless,  as  no  reliance  whatever 
can  be  placed  on  them  for  the  fulfilment  of  engage- 
ments. They  dispense  with  faith  towards  foreign- 
ers in  a  manner  truly  Machiavelian. 

The  excellent  observer  above  quoted  remarked 
also  the  cheerful  character  and  willing  industry  of 
the  Chinese.  This  is  in  fact  a  most  invaluable  trait, 
and,  like  most  other  virtues,  it  brings  its  own  re- 
ward :  the  display  is  not,  however,  hmited  to  their 
own  country.  The  superior  character  of  the  Chi- 
nese as  colonists,  in  regard  to  intelligence,  industry, 
and  general  sobriety,  must  be  derived  from  their  ed- 
ucation, and  from  the  influence  of  something  good 


PRIDE    AND    IGNORANCE.  245 

m  their  national  system.  Their  government  very 
justly  regards  education  as  omnipotent,  and  some 
share  of  it  nearly  every  Chinese  obtains.  Their 
domestic  disciphne  is  all  on  the  side  of  social  order 
and  universal  industry. 

The  important  advantages  which  they  certainly 
possess,  more  especially  in  comparison  w^ith  the  ad- 
joining countries,  have  given  the  Chinese  the  inor- 
dinate national  pride  so  offensive  to  Europeans. 
These  illusions  of  self-love,  fostered  by  ignorance, 
have  inspired  them  with  notions  of  their  country,  in 
regard  to  the  rest  of  the  earth,  quite  analogous  to 
those  entertained  by  the  old  astronomers,  of  the 
earth  relatively  to  the  universe.  Tliey  think  it  the 
centre  of  a  system,  and  call  it  choong-ku  ,  the  cen- 
tral nation ;  nor  is  it  a  small  increase  of  foreign  in- 
tercourse and  knowledge  that  will  be  required  to  set 
them  right.  The  naturaJ  disposition  of  the  people 
to  despise  strangers  has  been  artfully  promoted  by 
the  mandarins,  A  timid  and  miserable  policy  has 
led  them  to  consider  it  their  interest  to  increase  the 
mutual  dislike  and  disunion.  Hence  the  slanderous 
proclamations  exhibited  by  them  against  foreigners 
at  Canton,  and  the  penalties  attached  to  a  "trai- 
torous intercourse"  with  Europeans.  The  most 
dangerous  accusation  against  a  native  is  that  of 
being  subject  to  foreign  influence  in  any  way. 

There  is  a  positive  law  against  the  use  of  things 
not  sanctioned  by  custom  ;  partly  therefore  from 
fear,  partly  from  conceit,  they  are  very  little  inclined 
to  adopt  foreign  modes,  or  purchase  foreign  manu- 
factures. Raw  produce,  or  the  material  of  manufac- 
tures, finds  a  better  market  among  them ;  but  the 
most  marketable  commodity  of  all  is  dollars.  Indis- 
putably superior  as  Europe  is  in  science,  and  in  the 
productions  of  science,  yet  to  a  Chinese,  who  sees 
few  things  brought  from  thence  that  really  suit  his 
peculiar  and  conventional  wants,  or  that  are  in  con- 
formity with  the  usages  enjoined  by  the  ritual, — and 
X2 


246  THE  CHINESE. 

who,  until  lately,  heard  little  of  the  different  states 
into  which  Europe  is  divided,  but  the  indistinct  ru- 
mour of  their  endless  wars  and  massacres  on  a  large 
scale, — it  is  not  surprising  if  no  very  elevated  pic- 
ture presented  itself,  in  comparison  with  his  own 
immense  and  wealthy  country,  its  hundreds  of  mill- 
ions of  industrious  and  intelligent  people,  and  an 
uninterrupted  peace  of  nearly  200  years,  even  if  we 
go  no  farther  than  the  Tartar  invasion.  Whatever 
there  is  of  extreme  poverty  and  destitution  in  the 
country,  arises  solely  from  the  unusual  degree  in 
which  the  population  is  made  to  press  against  the 
means  of  subsistence,  by  causes  which  we  shall 
notice  hereafter  •,  and  not  from  any  fault  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  wealth,  which  is  perhaps  far  more  equal 
here  than  in  any  otlaer  country.  There  is  much 
less  inequality  in  the  fortunes  than  in  the  ranks  and 
conditions  of  men.  The  comparatively  low  esti- 
mation in  which  mere  wealth  is  held,  is  a  consider- 
able moral  advantage  on  the  side  of  the  Chinese ; 
for — 

"  Magnum  pauperies  opprobrium,  jubet 
Quidvis  et  facere  et  pati." 

Poverty  is  no  reproach  among  them.  The  two 
things  which  they  most  respect  are,  station  derived 
from  personal  merit,  and  the  claims  of  venerable 
old  age.  The  last  was  signally  honoured  by  Kang- 
hy,  the  second  emperor  of  the  reigning  family. 
An  inferior  olRcer,  of  more  than  a  hundred  years  of 
,age,  having  come  to  an  audience  to  do  homage,  the 
emperor  rose  from  his  seat  and  met  him,  desiring 
the  old  man  to  stand  up  without  ceremony,  and 
telling  him  he  paid  this  respect  to  his  great  age. 
According  to  that  connexion  which  exists  between 
the  languages  and  the  usages  of  nations,  the  ordi- 
nary address  of  civility  and  respect  in  China  is 
Laou-yay,  "  Old,  or  venerable  Father,"  which,  as  a 
mere  form  of  speech,  is  often  addressed  to  a  person 
half  the  age  of  the  speaker. 


GRAVITY    OF    DEMEANOUR.  247 

The  peaceful  and  prudential  character  of  the 
people  may  be  traced  to  the  influence  and  authori- 
ty of  age.  In  consequence  of  the  individuals  of 
succeeding  generations  living  entirely  under  the 
power  and  control  of  the  oldest  surviving  heads  of 
families,  the  ignorant  and  inexperienced  are  guided 
by  the  more  mature  judgment  of  the  elders,  and  the 
sallies  of  rashness  and  folly  easily  restrained.  The 
effects  of  example  and  of  early  habit  are  .equally 
visible  in  their  conversation.  The  Chinese  fre- 
quently get  the  better  of  Europeans,  in  a  discus- 
sion, by  imperturbable  coolness  and  gravity.  It  is 
part  of  their  policy  to  gain  the  advantage  by  letting 
their  opponent  work  himself  into  a  passion,  and 
place  himself  in  the  wrong:  hence  the  more  than 
ordinary  necessity  of  carefully  preserving  the  tem- 
per with  them.  Gravity  of  demeanour  is  much 
affected,  particularly  by  magistrates  and  persons  of 
rank  :  it  is  styled  choong,  literally  heavy,  or  grave 
(which,  in  its  origin,  means  the  same),  in  contradis- 
tinction to  king,  light,  or  levity.  As  this  is,  in  some 
degree,  promoted  by  a  heavy,  lumbering  figure,  it 
may  be  the  origin  of  their  partiality  for  bulkiness 
in  men ;  while  in  women  they  admire  such  an  op- 
posite quality.  Any  under-sized  individual,  who 
does  not  fill  his  chair  well,  they  jocularly  style 
"short  measure." 

It  is  the  discipline  to  which  they  are  subject  from 
earliest  childhood,  and  the  habit  of  controlling  their 
ruder  passions,  that  render  crimes  of  violence  so 
unfrequent  among  them.  Robbery  is  very  seldom 
accompanied  by  murder.  Under  real  or  supposed 
injury,  however,  they  are  sometimes  found  to  be 
very  revengeful,  and  on  such  occasions  not  at  all 
scrupulous  as  to  how  they  accomplish  their  pur- 
pose. Wonien  will  sometimes  hang  or  drown  them- 
selves, merely  to  bring  those  with  whom  they  have 
quarrelled  into  trouble.  The  people,  quiet  and  sub 
missive  as  they  are,  will,  when  once  roused  by  in 


248  THE    CHINESE, 

tolerable  oppression,  rise  en  masse  against  a  ma- 
gistrate, and  destroy  him  if  they  can.  In  such  a 
case,  should  the  obnoxious  governor  escape  the 
vengeance  of  the  populace,  he  seldom  meets  with 
any  mercy  at  Peking,  where  revolts  prove  serious 
occurrences  to  those  under  whom  they  take  place. 

To  the  system  of  clubbing  together  in  families — 
we  might  almost  say  in  clans — is  to  be  attributed 
that  sacred  regard  to  kindred  which  operates  bet- 
ter than  a  public  provision  for  the  relief  of  the  poor, 
and  serves  as  one  of  the  best  means  for  the  distri- 
bution of  wealth;  a  valuable  science,  in  which  they 
perhaps  beat  our  economists,  though  they  do  not 
equal  them  in  the  rules  for  its  creation.  Hence, 
too,  that  regard  for  the  place  of  his  birth,  which 
always  clings  to  a  Chinese  through  life,  often  ma- 
king him  apply  for  leave  to  quit  the  honours  and 
emoluments  of  office,  and  retire  to  his  native  vil- 
lage. The  same  feeling  makes  the  colonists,  who 
venture  abroad  in  search  of  gain,  return  home  as 
soon  as  they  have  acquired  something  like  a  com- 
petency, though  at  the  risk  of  being  oppressed 
under  the  forms  of  law  for  having  left  China.  They 
have  a  popular  saying,  "  If  he  who  attains  to  hon- 
ours or  wealth  never  returns  to  his  native  place,  he 
is  like  a  finely-dressed  person  walking  in  the  dark ;" 
— it  is  all  thrown  away. 

We  have  now  touched  briefly  upon  the  leading 
features  of  the  Chinese  character,  which  will  be 
viewed  and  appreciated  according  to  the  peculiar 
tastes  and  opinions  of  readers,  but  which,  by  most 
persons,  must  be  allowed  to  contain  an  admixture, 
at  least,  of  what  is  good  and  valuable.  It  remains 
to  notice  one  important  circumstance  which  has 
very  naturally  rendered  this  people  obnoxious  to 
severe  censure — the  infanticide*  of  female  children. 
The  presumed  extent  of  this   practice  has  been 

*  This  subject  is  not  mentioned  in  the  penal  code. 


INFANTICIDE.  249 

brought  as  an  argument  against  the  prevalence  of 
parental  feeling  in  China ;  but  we  believe  that  the 
amount  of  it  has,  by  most  writers,  been  overrated. 
No  doubt  but,  in  occasional  instances  of  female 
births,  infanticide  does  exist ;  but  these  cases  cer- 
tainly occur  only  in  the  chief  cities,  and  the  most 
crowded  population,  where  the  difficulty  of  subsist- 
ence takes  away  all  hope  from  the  poorest  persons 
of  being  able  to  rear  their  offspring.  The  Chinese 
are  in  general  peculiarly  fond  of  their  children,  and 
the  attachment  seems  to  be  mutual.  The  instances 
at  Canton  (a  very  crowded  and  populous  place)  of 
the  bodies  of  infants  being  seen  floating  are  not 
frequent,  and  may  reasonably,  in  some  cases,  be 
attributed  to  accident,  where  such  multitudes  are 
brought  up  from  their  birth  in  small  boats.  There 
never  was  a  more  absurd  blunder  than  to  charge  to 
infanticide  those  instances  in  which  the  infants  are 
found  floating  with  a  hollow  gourd  about  their  per- 
sons, as  if  the  gourd  were  a  part  of  the  system  of 
exposure  !  Why,  the  very  object  of  attaching  these 
gourds  to  the  children  living  in  boats  is  to  save 
them  from  the  risk  of  being  drowned,  and  to  float 
them  until  they  can  be  pulled  out  of  the  water. 
That  children  are  sometimes  found  drowned,  in 
spite  of  this  precaution,  is  possible  enough ;  but  to 
consider  the  gourds  as  part  and  parcel  of  their 
fate,  is  about  as  reasonable  and  correct  as  if  some- 
body should  attribute  all  the  deaths  in  England, 
from  drowning,  to  the  exertions  of  the  Humane 
Society.* 

The  Roman  Catholic  fathers,  with  all  their  com- 
plete and  intimate  knowledge  of  China,  had  a  trick 

*  Mons.  de  Guignes  is  quite  right  on  this  point.  "  Quant  k 
ce  que  Ton  dit  qu'elles  attachent  une  calabasse  sur  le  dos  des 
enfans  pour  les  faire  flotter  plus  long-tems,  afin  de  donner  le 
terns  a  quelque  personne  charitable  de  leur  sauver  la  vie,  elles 
ne  le  font  que  pour  avoir  elles-memes  le  moyen  de  les  secourii 
dans  le  cas  ou  lis  tomberoient  a  la  riviere." 


250  THE    CHINESE. 

of  giving  their  own  colouring  to  such  matters  as 
bore  in  any  way  upon  the  honour  and  glory  of  the 
mission.  We  have  seen  that  they  dealt  now  and 
then  in  miracles ;  the  mere  over-statement,  there- 
fore, of  the  practice  of  infanticide  was  natural 
enough,  when  connected  with  the  object ;  and  Du 
Halde  gives  a  pompous  account  of  the  fruits  of  the 
missionary  exertions.  The  merit,  however,  was 
peculiar,  and  of  an  equivocal  kind ;  for,  instead  of 
attempting  on  most  occasions  to  save  the  lives  of 
the  children  doomed  to  be  drowned,  they  or  their 
proselytes  walked  about  to  the  houses,  baptizing 
the  new-born  infants  previous  to  death — a  cheap, 
rapid,  and  easy  work  of  charity. 

— "  Licehit, 
Injecto  ter  pulvere,  curras." 

In  their  physical  characteristics,  the  Chinese  are 
generally  as  superior  to  the  nations  which  border 
on  them  as  in  other  points.  It  has  often  been  re- 
marked, that  a  finer-shaped  and  more  powerful  race 
of  men  exist  nowhere  than  the  coolies,  or  porters 
of  Canton,  and  the  weights  which  they  carry  with 
ease  on  a  bamboo,  between  two  of  them,  would 
break  down  most  others.  The  freedom  of  their 
dress  gives  a  development  to  their  limbs  that  ren- 
ders many  of  the  Chinese  models  for  a  sculptor. 
As  sailors,  they  have  been  found  always  much 
stronger  and  more  efficient  than  Lascars  on  board 
of  English  ships,  though  the  obstacles  which  exist 
to  their  entering  into  foreign  service  prevent  their 
being  frequently  engaged.  During  the  war,  the 
difficulty  of  manning  the  company's  ships  with 
English  seamen  was  the  occasion  of  great  numbers 
being  employed,  though  at  a  very  heavy  expense. 

The  superior  physical  character  of  the  Chinese, 
in  comparison  with  many  other  Asiatics,  must  in 
great  measure  be  attributed  to  the  general  healthi- 
ness of  their  climate,  notwithstanding  the  existence 


PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS.  251 

of  very  considerable,  as  well  as  rapid,  vicissitudes 
of  heat  and  cold.  The  extent  to  which  cultivation 
and  drainage  have  been  carried  in  all  the  lower 
levels  throughout  the  country,  must,  no  doubt,  have 
its  share  in  the  effect ;  and  the  general  prevalence 
of  active,  as  well  as  sober,  habits  in  the  bulk  of  the 
population,  is  another  important  circumstance.  It 
may  be  observed  here,  that  if  that  terrible  scourge 
the  cholera  could  be  proved  to  have  existed  at  all 
in  China,*  during  the  period  in  which  it  has  occa- 
sioned such  frightful  ravages  in  other  parts  of  the 
world,  its  extent  and  effects  have  been  so  inconsid- 
erable as  not  to  deserve  serious  notice.  The  idea 
which  has  prevailed  in  France,  relative  to  the  use 
of  tea  being  a  means  of  avoiding  the  disease,  might 
seem  to  derive  some  corroboration  from  this  gen- 
eral immunity  in  the  country  where  tea  is  more 
extensively  consumed  than  elsewhere. 

When  the  cranium,  or  scull,  of  a  Chinese  is 
compared  with  those  of  a  European  and  a  negro,  it 
is  observable  that  what  is  called  the  facial  angle ^  in 
the  case  of  the  first,  is  something  of  a  medium  be- 
tween the  other  two  ;  in  other  words,  that  the  fore- 
head and  upper  part  of  the  face  in  the  Chinese 
retire,  or  incline  backward,  rather  more  than  in  the 
European,  but  much  less  than  in  the  African.  The 
same  remark  holds  in  respect  to  the  oblique  inser- 
tion of  the  incisors,  or  front  teeth.  In  the  thickness 
of  the  lips  the  Chinese  approaches,  but  by  no  means 
equals,  the  negro  ;  nor  is  that  feature  at  all  so  prom- 
inent as  in  the  latter.  The  nose  is  flattened,  and 
the  nostrils  expanded,  in  the  Chinese,  but  not  to  the 
same  extent  as  in  the  Ethiopian.  In  some  points 
of  physiology,  the  people  whom  we  describe  bear 
a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  North  American 
Indians.  There  is  the  same  lank,  black,  and  shi- 
ning hair;  the  same  obliquity  of  the  eyes,  and  eye- 

*  The  European  shipping  nt  Whainpoa  not  included 


2ffi3  THE    CHINESE. 

brows  turned  upwards  at  the  outer  extrenjities;  and 
a  corresponding  thinness  and  tufty  growth  of  beard. 
The  Chinese,  too,  is  distinguished  by  a  nearly  total 
absence  of  hair  from  the  surface  of  the  body.  In 
the  smallness  of  the  hands  and  feet,  and  of  the 
bones  of  the  body,  compared  with  Europeans,  he 
resembles  the  generality  of  Asiatics.  We  may  re- 
mark here  that  the  Esquimaux,  as  represented  in 
the  plates  to  Captain  Lyon's  voyage,  bear  a  very 
striking  similarity  to  the  Tdn-kea,  or  "boat-people" 
of  the  coast  of  China,  who  are  treated  by  the  gov- 
ernment as  a  different  race  from  those  on  shore, 
and  not  allowed  to  intermarry  with  them.  Whether 
the  miserable  inhabitants  of  the  cold  regions  to  the 
north  have  thus  migrated  southward,  along  the 
coast,  at  some  former  periods,  in  search  of  a  more 
genial  climate,  must  be  a  mere  matter  of  conjecture 
in  the  absence  of  positive  proof. 

Though  the  Chinese  are  allied  to  the  Mongols 
in  the  general  cast  of  their  features,  the  harsher 
points  of  the  latter  are  softened  down  in  the  for- 
mer considerably.  It  would  be  a  hopeless  task  to 
attempt  to  explain,  on  any  certain  grounds,  the 
mode  in  which  China  first  became  peopled.  The 
only  thing  like  testimony  that  we  possess,  out  of 
China,  relating  to  this  subject,  is  in  the  Institutes 
of  Menu,  as  quoted  by  Sir  William  Jones.  It  is 
there  written,  that  "  many  families  of  the  military 
class,  having  gradually  abandoned  the  ordinances 
of  the  Veda,  and  the  company  of  Brahmins,  lived  in 
a  slate  of  degradation,  as  the  Chinas  and  some 
other  nations."  A  native  historian  certainly  states 
that,  at  a  period  corresponding  to  1200  years  be- 
fore Christ,  "the  Chinese  nation  was  small  and 
feeble,  the  Eastern  foreigners  (people  between 
them  and  the  east  coast)  numerous  and  strong," 
and  that  the  former  "  gradually  obtained  a  settle- 
ment in  the  middle  of  the  country."  This,  as  far 
as  it  goes,  might  be  construed  into  a  proof  that 


PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  253 

China,  accol-ding  to  the  opmion  of  Sir  William 
Jones,  was  originally  peopled  in  part  from  India. 

But,  however  that  may  be,  the  position  hazarded 
by  De  Giiignes,  that  the  Chinese  were  a  colony 
from  Egypt,  seems  hardly  capable  of  sufficient  sup- 
port from  testimony,  either  direct  or  circumstantial. 
iSuch  a  distant  emigration  could  not  have  taken 
place  without  the  knowledge  and  notice  of  the  na- 
tions inhabiting  the  vast  countries  that  intervene  : 
besides  which,  there  exists  not  the  slightest  shadow 
of  resemblance  between  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt 
and  the  Chinese  characters.  This  point  was  first 
satisfactorily  proved  in  a  letter  from  Pere  Amiot  at 
Peking  to  the  Royal  Society  at  London,  which  had 
applied  to  him  for  information.  In  one  respect,  in- 
deed, we  are  ready  to  admit  that  there  is  a  resem- 
blance ;  but  that  is  only  in  the  use  of  the  respective 
characters.  The  researches  of  Dr.  Young  first 
{jroYcd  that  the  pictorial  emblems  of  the  sacred 
language  of  Egypt  had  been  used  in  the  Rosetta 
inscription,  as  symbols  of  sound  in  the  expression 
of  foreign  names.  Now,  this  is  precisely  what  the 
Chinese  do,  from  obvious  necessity,  in  similar 
cases.  Their  monosyllabic  characters  are  used  to 
represent  the  sounds  of  foreigners'  names,  and  either 
connected  by  a  line  along  the  side,  or  otherwise 
distinguished  by  a  small  mark,  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  Egyptians  enclosed  theirs  in  an  oval  ring, 
or  cartouche. 

But  to  return  to  our  immediate  subject.  People 
in  Europe  have  been  strangely  misled,  in  their  no- 
tions of  Chinese  physiognomy  and  appearance,  by 
the  figures  represented  on  those  specimens  of 
manufacture  which  proceed  from  Canton,  and  which 
are  commonly  in  a  style  of  broad  caricature.  A 
Chinese  at  Peking  might  as  well  form  an  idea  of 
us  from  some  of  the  performances  of  Cruikshank. 
The  consequence  has  been,  that  a  character  of  silly 
levity  and  farce  has  been  associated,  in  the  minds 

Vol.  L— Y 


254  THE  CHINESE. 

of  many  persons,  with  the  most  steady,  consider- 
ate, and  matter-of-fact  people  in  the  world,  who  in 
grave  matters  of  business  are  often  a  match  for  the 
best  of  Europeans.  Their  features  have  perhaps 
less  of  the  harsh  angularity  of  the  Tartar  counte- 
nance in  the  south  than  at  Peking.  Among  those 
who  are  not  exposed  to  the  climate,  the  complexion 
is  fully  as  fair  as  that  of  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  ; 
but  the  sun  has  a  powerful  effect  on  their  skins, 
and  that  upper  portion  of  a  man's  person  habitually 
exposed  in  the  summer  is  often  so  different  from 
the  remainder,  that,  when  stripped,  he  looks  hke 
the  lower  half  of  a  European  joined  on  to  the  upper 
moiety  of  an  Asiatic.  Up  to  the  age  of  twenty 
they  are  often  very  good-looking,  but  soon  after 
that  period  the  prominent  cheek-bones  generally 
give  a  harshness  to  the  features,  as  the  roundness 
of  youth  wears  off.  With  the  progress  of  age  the 
old  men  become  in  most  cases  extremely  ugly „ and 
the  old  women  can  only  be  described  by  Juvenal ; — 

"  Tales  adspice  rugas 

Quales,  umbriferos  ubi  pandit  Tabraca  saltus. 
In  vetula  scalpit  jam  mater  simia  bucca." 

"  Such  wrinkles  see, 

As  in  an  Indian  forest's  solitude, 

Some  old  ape  scrubs  amid  her  numerous  brood." 

A  conjecture  has  already  been  offered  in  expla- 
nation of  the  very  opposite  characters  of  figure 
admired  in  the  two  sexes.  A  woman  should  be 
extremely  slender  and  fragile  in  appearance ;  a  man 
very  stout, — not  in  those  proportions  that  denote 
nmscular  strength,  and  what  we  call  condition., — but 
corpulent,  obese,  alderman-like.  It  is  fashionable 
in  both  men  and  women  to  allow  the  nails  of  the 
left  hand  to  grow  to  an  inordinate  length,  until  they 
assume  an  appearance  very  like  the  claws  of  the 
bradypus,  as  represented  in  Sir  Charles  Bell's  work 
on  the  "  Hand."     An  Enghsh  gentleman  in  China 


PERSONAL  APPEARANCE. 


255 


reasonably  prohibited  one  of  his  servants  from  in- 
dulging in  this  piece  of  foppery,  on  the  ground  that 
fingers  provided  with  such  appendages  could  not 
possibly  perform  any  work.  The  brittleness  of  the 
nail  rendering  it  liable  to  break,  they  have  been 
known  sometimes  to  protect  it,  when  very  long,  by 
means  of  thin  slips  of  bamboo. 

But  the  most  unaccountable  species  of  taste  is 
that  mutilation  of  the  women's  feet,  for  which  the 
Chinese  are  so  remarkable.  Of  the  origin  of  this 
custom  there  is  no  very  distinct  account,  except 
that  it  took  place  about  the  close  of  the  T^ng  dy- 
nasty, or  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  of  our  era. 
The  Tartars  have  had  the  good  sense  not  to  adopt 
this  artificial  deformity,  and  their  ladies  wear  a 
shoe  like  that  of  the  men,  except  that  it  has  a  white 
sole  of  still  greater  thickness.  As  it  would  seem 
next  to  impossible  to  refer  to  any  notions  of  physi- 
cal beauty,  however  arbitrary,  such  shocking  muti- 
lation as  that  produced  by  the  cramping  of  the  foot 


Small  feet  of  a  Chinese  Lady. 
in  early  childhood,  it  may  partly  be  ascribed  to  the 
principle  which  dictates  tlie  fasjiion  of  long  nails. 


256  THE  CHINESE. 

The  idea  conveyed  by  these  is  exemption  from  la- 
hour;  and,  as  the  small  feet  make  cripples  of  the 
women,  it  is  fair  to  conclude  that  the  idea  of  gen- 
tility which  they  convey  arises  from  a  similar  as- 
sociation. That  appearance  of  helplessness  which 
is  induced  by  the  mutilation  they  admire  extreme- 
ly, notwithstanding  its  very  usual  concomitant  of 
sickliness ;  and  the  tottering  gait  of  the  poor  women, 
as  they  hobble  along  upon  the  heel  of  the  foot,  they 
compare  to  the  waving  of  a  willow  agitated  by  the 
breeze.  We  may  add  that  this  odious  custom  ex- 
tends lower  down  in  the  scale  of  society  than 
might  have  been  expected  from  its  disabling  effect 
upon  those  who  have  to  labour  for  their  subsist- 
ence. If  the  custom  was  first  imposed  by  the  tyr- 
anny of  the  men,  the  women  are  fully  revenged  in  the 
diminution  of  their  charms  and  domestic  usefulness. 
In  no  instances  have  the  folly  and  childishness 
of  a  large  portion  of  mankind  been  more  strikingly 
displayed  than  in  those  various,  and  occasionally 
very  opposite,  modes  in  which  they  have  departed 
from  the  standard  of  nature,  and  sought  distinction 
even  in  deformity.  Thus,  while  one  race  of  people 
crushes  the  feet  of  its  children,  another  flattens 
their  heads  between  two  boards ;  and,  while  we  in 
Europe  admire  the  natural  whiteness  of  the  teeth, 
the  Malays  file  off  the  enamel,  and  die  them  black, 
for  the  all-sufficient  reason  that  dogs'  teeth  are 
white !  A  New  Zealand  chief  has  his  distinctive 
coat  of  arms  emblazoned  on  the  skin  of  his  face, 
as  well  as  on  his  limbs  ;  and  an  Esquimaux  is  noth- 
ing if  he  have  not  bits  of  stone  stuffed  through  a 
hole  in  each  cheek.  Quite  as  absurd,  and  still 
more  mischievous,  is  the  infatuation  which,  among 
some  Europeans,  attaches  beauty  to  that  modifica- 
tion of  the  human  figure  which  resembles  the  wasp, 
and  compresses  the  waist  until  the  very  ribs  have 
been  distorted,  and  the  functions  of  the  vital  organs 
irreparably  disordered. 


PRIMITIVE  FEATURES.  257 

It  is  an  interesting  question  to  investigate  how 
the  Chinese  are  to  be  ranked  with  other  nations  in 
the  comparative  scale  of  civil  society.  We  have 
already  endeavoured  to  show  in  part,  and  have 
still  to  show,  the  considerable  moral  and  political 
advantages  which  they  actually  possess,  and  which 
Sir  George  Staunton  has,  with  his  usual  knowledge 
and  ability,  summed  up  as  attributable  "to  the  re- 
gard paid  to  the  ties  of  kindred  ;  to  the  sobriety,  in- 
dustry, and  intelligence  of  the  lovi^er  classes ;  to  the 
nearly  total  absence  of  feudal  rights  and  privileges ; 
the  equal  distribution  of  landed  property ;  to  the  in- 
disposition of  government  to  engage  in  schemes  of 
foreign  warfare  and  ambition ;  and  to  a  system  of 
penal  laws  the  most  clearly  defined,  comprehen- 
sive, and  business-like  of  any,  at  least  among  Asi- 
atics.''^ It  would  be  idle,  on  the  other  hand,  to  deny 
that  they  possess  vices  and  defects  peculiar  to  their 
own  political  and  social  condition. 

It  has  been  reasonably  argued  by  the  authority 
above  quoted,  that  "  a  people  whose  written  lan- 
guage is  founded  on  the  most  ancient  of  principles, 
and  the  frame  of  whose  government  is  essentially 
conformable  to  the  patriarchal  system  of  the  first 
ages,  must  have  segregated  themselves  from  the 
rest  of  mankind  before  the  period  at  which  the 
symbolic  was  superseded  by  the  alphabetic  charac- 
ter, and  the  patriarchal  by  other  forms  of  govern- 
ment." The  same  circumstances  of  government 
and  language  which  denote  the  antiquity/  of  the 
Chinese  institutions,  may,  we  think,  account  for 
their  durability/.  The  theory  of  government  com- 
bining the  pater  atque  princeps,  which  has  always 
been  the  first  to  present  itself  to  men's  minds,  if 
not  the  best  in  practice,  may  be  the  most  plausible 
in  principle  ;  and  the  system  of  written  characters, 
which  cannot  be  altered  with  the  readiness  of  our 
syllabic  words  (notoriously  the  subjects  of  caprice 
in  mcMit  languages),  may  have  given  a  considerable 
¥2 


258  THE  CHINESE. 

fixedness  to  the  intellect  of  China,  through  the  me- 
dium of  its  literature.  Any  one  who  has  been  in 
the  habit  of  translating  into  Chinese,  knows  the 
difficulty  of  conveying  foreign  ideas  in  an  intelligi- 
ble shape. 

There  is  another  primitive  characteristic  to  be 
noticed  in  the  classification  of  the  four  ranks,  or 
orders,  into  which  the  community  of  China  is  divi- 
ded. These  are,  in  the  first  place,  the  learned ;  sec- 
ondly, husbandmen ;  thirdly,  manufacturers ;  and 
fourthly,  merchants.  This  arrangement  seems  suffi- 
ciently correct  and  philosophical,  considered  with 
a  reference  merely  to  the  successive  rise  of  those 
four  orders  in  the  progress  of  society.  In  the  ear- 
liest ages,  superior  wisdom  and  knowledge,  the  re- 
sult of  old  age  and  experience,  constitute  the  prin- 
cipal claim  to  respect  and  distinction.  As  society 
advances,  and  as  nomadic  tribes  become  fixed  to 
particular  spots,  they  turn  their  attention  to  the 
cultivation  of  land.  With  the  gradual  increase  of 
raw  produce,  the  rise  of  towns,  and  the  adoption  of 
exchanges  between  town  and  country,  follow  man- 
ufactures ;  and  lastly,  with  the  growth  of  capital 
and  the  increase  of  manufactures,  comes  commerce, 
domestic  and  foreign. 

But,  by  the  time  that  a  country  has  reached  a 
certain  point  of  advancement,  this  pristine  arrange- 
ment (with  the  exception  of  the  first  class)  must  be 
considered  as  merely  nominal,  and  perhaps,  in  some 
communities,  rather  as  the  inverse  order  in  which 
the  several  classes  will  really  stand  in  relation  to 
each  other.  The  influence  of  wealth — the  conse- 
quence arising  from  superior  possessions — will  have 
its  sway ;  and  as  manufactures  may  become  a  more 
fertile  source  of  wealth  than  tillage,  and  commerce 
than  manufactures,  so  the  former  may  impart  great- 
er influence  to  those  who  pursue  them  respectively. 
Accordingly,  we  find,  in  China,  that  the  poor  culti- 
vator of  one  of  those  small  patches,  to  which  the 


REGULATION  OF  IMPERIAL  KINDRED.       259 

subdivision  of  inheritances  tends  to  reduce  the 
lands,  derives  Uttle  substantial  benefit  from  the 
estimation  in  which  his  calling  is  affected  to  be 
held;  even  though  the  emperor  himself  once  a 
year  guides  the  plough.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
opulent  merchant  contrives  to  obtain  the  services 
of  those  whom  he  can  benefit  by  his  wealth ;  even 
the  acquaintance  and  good  offices  of  persons  in 
power,  however  low  the  nominal  rank  assigned  to 
him  in  the  theoretical  institutions  of  the  country. 
At  the  same  time,  the  class  of  the  learned  retain 
their  supremacy  far  above  all,  and  fill  the  ranks  of 
government. 

Hereditary  rank,  without  merit,  is  of  little  value 
to  the  possessor,  as  we  have  before  noticed.  The 
descendants  of  the  Manchow  family  are  ranked  in 
Jive  degrees,  which,  for  that  reason  only,  were  dis- 
tinguished by  the  Jesuits  with  the  titles  of  the  five 
orders  of  European  nobility.  These  imperial  de- 
scendants wear  the  yellow  girdle,  and,  without  any 
power  whatever,  have  certain  small  revenues  allot- 
ted to  them  for  a  subsistence.  Of  course,  as  they 
multiply,  some  of  the  remoter  branches  become 
reduced  to  a  very  indigent  condition,  when  unaided 
by  personal  exertion  and  merit.  At  the  fall  of  the 
last  Chinese  dynasty,  a  vast  number  of  the  ejected 
family  dropped  the  yellow  girdle,  and  sougfit  for 
safety  in  a  private  condition.  It  is  said  that  many 
of  the  representatives  of  the  Ming  race  still  remain ; 
one  of  them  was  servant  to  several  of  the  Jesuits  ; 
and,  whenever  it  shall  happen  that  rebellion  suc- 
ceeds against  the  Tartars,  some  of  the  number  may 
probably  be  forthcoming. 

The  imperial  relatives  of  the  Tartar  line  being 
numerous,  and  withal  brought  up  to  a  life  of  idle- 
ness, are  in  many  cases  ignorant,  worthless,  and 
dissipated  ;  and  it  is  possibly  from  some  feeling  of 
jealousy,  as  well  as  on  account  of  their  disorderly 
character,  that  they  are  kept  under  veiy  strict  con- 


260  THE    CHINESE. 

trol.  The  last  British  embassy  had  a  specimen  of 
their  conduct  and  manners  at  Yuen-ming-yuen,  as 
well  as  of  the  little  ceremony  with  which  they 
are  occasionally  treated.  When  they  crowded, 
with  a  childish  and  uncivil  curiosity,  upon  the  Eng- 
lish party,  the  principal  person  among  the  manda- 
rins seized  a  whip,  and,  not  satisfied  with  using  that 
alone,  actually  kicked  out  the  mob  of  yellow-girdles. 
In  the  previous  mission  of  Lord  Macartney,  Mr. 
Barrow  has  related  an  instance  of  the  meanness  of 
one  of  these  princes  of  the  blood — no  less  a  per- 
son than  a  grandson  of  the  emperor — who  sent 
him  a  paltry  present,  with  a  broad  hint  that  his 
gold  watch  would  be  acceptable  in  return. 

There  are  two  lines  of  the  imperial  house  of 
China ;  the  first  descended  from  the  great  conquer- 
or himself,  and  the  second  from  his  collaterals,  or 
his  brothers  and  uncles.  The  first  are  called  Tsoong- 
she,*  "  ancestral  house,"  and  distinguished  by  a  yel- 
low girdle,  and  a  bridle  of  the  same  colour.  The 
second  are  styled  Keolo  (a  Tartar  word),  and 
marked  by  a  red  sash  and  bridle.  Every  thing 
about  their  dress  and  equipage  is  subject  to  mi- 
nute regulation.  Some  are  decorated  with  the  pea- 
cock's feather,  and  others  allowed  the  privilege  of 
the  green  sedan.  There  are  rules  concerning 
their  establishments  and  retinue,  and  the  number  of 
eunuchs  which  each  may  employ.  The  greatest 
number  of  these  allowed  to  any  individual  is  elev- 
en, the  chief  of  whom  wears  a  white  ball  or  button 
on  his  cap.  For  the  government  of  all  the  mem- 
bers of  the  imperial  kindred  there  is  a  court,  called 
the  "  office  of  the  ancestral  tribe."  This  is  wholly 
distinct  from  the  Chinese  courts,  and  has  its  own 
laws  and  usages ;  and  a  w^ng  (called  by  the  Jesu- 
its regulus,  or  little  king)  is  president  of  it. 

The  principal  use  of  these  imperial  descendants 

*  Tsoong-jin  Foo. 


ROAD    OPEN    TO    TALENT.  261 

seems  to  be  the  formation  of  a  courtly  apanage,  to 
swell  the  emperor's  state.  They  are  obliged,  at 
the  new  and  full  moon,  to  attend  the  court,  and  ar- 
range themselves  in  order,  some  within  the  audi- 
ence-hall, and  some  without,  at,  or  rather  before, 
daybreak.  When  the  emperor  makes  his  appear- 
ance, they  all  fall  prostrate  and  perform  their 
adoration ;  and  it  was  the  party  collected  for  this 
purpose  at  daybreak  on  the  29th  August,  1816, 
which  so  greatly  annoyed  the  English  embassy  by 
their  importunate  curiosity  and  uncourtly  rudeness. 
It  is  their  idle  and  useless  life,  and  the  absence  of 
any  motives  for  exertion,  which  make  these  per- 
sons frequently  both  ignorant  and  vicious,  and  ex- 
tremely troublesome  to  the  emperor.  Many  have 
been  ordered  away  from  Peking,  and  sent  to  Man- 
chow  Tartary,  to  be  placed  under  the  charge  of 
the  native  chiefs,  while  others  have  been  sentenced 
to  perpetual  solitary  confinement.  In  1819,  one  of 
the  imperial  clan,  wearing  a  red  girdle,  found  his 
way  to  Canton,  where  he  had  a  relation  by  affinity 
officiating  as  the  provincial  judge.  His  plea  for 
quitting  the  capital  was  extreme  poverty,  but  the 
judge  did  not  venture  to  house  him.  He  was  de- 
livered in  custody  to  the  local  authorities,  and  packed 
off  again  under  military  escort  to  Peking,  where  it 
is  said  he  was  shut  up  for  the  remainder  of  his  hfe. 
These  persons  are  strongly  contrasted,  in  point 
of  intelligence,  learning,  and  every  other  claim  to 
respect,  with  the  official  rulers  of  China — its  real 
aristocracy.  The  impartial  distribution  (with  few' 
exceptions)  of  state  offices  and  magistracies  to  all 
who  give  evidence  of  superior  learning  or  talent, 
without  regard  to  birth  or  possessions,  lies  probably 
at  the  bottom  of  the  greatness  and  prosperity  of 
the  empire.  Nothing  can  be  more  true  than  the 
observations  on  this  subject  of  the  late  Dr.  Milne, 
an  excellent  Chinese  scholar  :  "  This  principle  has 
always  been  maintained;   although,  as  may  natu- 


262  THE    CHINESE. 

rally  be  supposed,  it  has  often  in  practice  been  de- 
parted from.  Yet  the  existence  of  the  principle, 
and  its  being  acted  on  to  a  considerable  extent, 
give  every  person  in  China  (with  the  exception  of 
menial  servants,  the  lowest  agents  of  the  police, 
and  comedians)  a  solid  reason  to  be  satisfied  w^ith 
the  system.  They  are  the  ambitious  who  generally 
overturn  governments  ;  but  in  China  there  is  a  road 
open  to  the  ambitious,  without  the  dreadful  alter- 
native of  revolutionizing  the  country.  All  that  is 
required  of  a  man  is  the  very  reasonable  thing  that 
he  should  give  some  proof  of  the  possession  of 
superior  talents. 

"  The  government  affords  him  every  three  years, 
and  occasionally  oftener,  an  opportunity  of  display- 
ing his  attainments  in  a  stipulated  way;  and,  if  it 
cannot  give  offices  to  all,  it  gives  honours,  and  de- 
clares the  successful  candidate  eligible  to  a  situa- 
tion either  civil  or  military;  and,  finally,  to  the 
highest  offices  of  the  state,  if  his  merits  shall  entitle 
him  thereto.  The  present  dynasty  has  frequently 
sold  commissions  both  in  the  civil  service  and  in 
the  army,  in  order  to  supply  its  pecuniary  wants ; 
which  circumstance  gives  much  dissatisfaction  to 
those  who  depend  on  their  learning  and  knowledge 
for  promotion ;  and  this  conduct  is  generally  deem- 
ed disreputable.  Those  of  the  community  who  are 
raised  above  manual  labour,  or  the  drudgery  of  daily 
business,  are  occupied  with  what  gratifies  their  lau- 
dable emulation,  or  their  vanity  and  ambition ;  and 
from  among  these,  when  the  state  wants  men,  it 
selects  the  best  talents  of  the  whole  country.  I 
submit  it,  whether  the  principle  and  the  system, 
which  I  have  thus  slightly  exhibited,  be  not  the 
great  secret  of  the  Chinese  aggrandizement." 

The  superior  honours  paid  to  letters  over  arms 
must  tend  to  make  Chinese  ambition  run  in  a  peace- 
ful channel.  At  the  annual  meetings  of  the  manda- 
rins in  the  provincial  capitals,  to  perform  adoration 


ROAD    OPEN   TO   TALENT.  263 

before  the  emperor's  shrine  on  his  birthday,  this 
difference  is  shown  by  the  civil  officers  taking  their 
places  to  the  east  (the  higher  station),  and  the  oth- 
ers to  the  west.  The  civil  mandarins  look  upon 
Confucius  as  their  peculiar  patron,  and  are  in  fact 
the  high  priesthood,  whose  sole  privilege  it  is  to 
sacrifice  at  his  temples. 

The  lineal  descendants  of  Confucius  also  have 
some  hereditary  honours.  The  head  of  this  race 
is  always  distinguished  by  the  title  of  koong,  the 
highest  of  the  five  degrees  before  mentioned.  He 
repairs  to  Peking  once  a  year  from  Keo-fow  Hien, 
in  Shantung  province,  the  birthplace  of  the  great 
philosopher  and  statesman,  and  receives  certain 
marks  of  distinction  from  the  emperor.  Pere  Bou- 
vet,  in  1693,  found  the  governor  of  a  chow,  or  city 
of  the  second  order,  in  one  of  the  southern  provin- 
ces, bearing  the  same  surname,  and  deriving  his 
descent  from  the  deified  teacher  of  China,  but  he 
had  earned  his  office  by  his  learning,  and  not  by 
his  descent.  The  great  limitation  in  the  privileges 
of  the  various  species  of  hereditary  rank,  and  the 
continual  subdivision  of  property  among  a  man's 
numerous  descendants,  are  the  causes  which  prevent 
any  individual  becoming  dangerous  by  his  influence 
or  wealth.  The  true  aristocracy  of  China,  its  offi- 
cial rulers,  are  of  course  a  constantly  fluctuating 
body.  The  gentry  of  every  province,  below  these, 
consist  of  the  mandarins  retired  from  employment, 
and  all  who  have  attained  any  of  the  three  literary 
degrees,  or  the  nine  ranks  distinguished  by  the  ball 
on  the  cap.  The  merit  of  a  son  often  elevates  his 
parents,  and  posthumous  titles  of  dignity  are  occa- 
sionally conferred  on  the  ancestors  for  several  gen- 
erations. 

Among  the  various  causes  which  conduce  to  give 
to  the  upper  classes  in  China  their  unostentatious 
character,  and  to  prevent  expensiveness  being  a 
fashion  among  them,  we  may  observe  that  a  suffi- 


264  THE  CHINESE. 

cient  reason  exists  for  the  absence  of  magnificence 
from  the  estabhshments  of  official  persons,  inde- 
pendently of  its  being  their  policy  to  affect  simpli- 
city. As  none  can  exercise  office  in  his  birthplace, 
or  patrimonial  abode,  he  can  have  no  motive  to  ex- 
pend money  on  his  official  residence,  from  which 
he  is  liable  at  the  shortest  notice  to  be  removed 
elsewhere  ;  the  longest  period  being  generally  three 
years.  Hence  official  persons  are  commonly  very 
shabby  in  every  thing  but  their  personal  habiliments ; 
their  followers,  even,  being  often  dirty  and  ragged. 
The  pride  of  external  pomp  and  retinue  is  not  allow- 
ed, on  ordinary  occasions,  to  any  except  the  official 
aristocracy,  and  with  these  it  consists  rather  in  the 
number  than  in  the  condition  of  their  attendants. 

The  intercourse  of  social  life  in  all  cases  where  . 
women  are  confined  to  their  homes,  or  to  the  com- 
pany of  their  own  sex,  must  of  course  suffer ;  and 
accordingly  we  find  that  in  China  it  is  cold,  formal, 
and  encumbered  with  the  ponderous  system  of  cer- 
emonies, which  have  been  transmitted  from  time 
immemorial.  These,  however,  are  occasionally  cast 
off  in  those  scenes  of  convivial  excess  into  which 
exclusively  male  society  is  so  apt  to  degenerate, 
when  the  recoil  is  sometimes  as  great  on  the  side 
of  license,  as  the  previous  restraint  has  been  strict. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  in  justice  to  the  bet- 
ter class  of  Chinese,  that  these  scenes  are  held  in 
deserved  disrepute,  and  prove  always  more  or  less 
injurious  to  a  man's  character. 

Notwithstanding  the  general  disadvantages  on  the 
side  of  the  weaker  sex  here,  in  common  with  other 
Asiatic  countries,  its  respectability  is  in  some  de- 
gree preserved  by  a  certain  extent  of  authority 
allowed  to  widows  over  their  sons,  and  by  the  hom- 
age which  these  are  obliged  to  pay  to  their  mothers. 
The  emperor  himself  performs  the  ceremonies  of  the 
ko-toio  before  his  own  mother,  who  receives  them 
seated  on  a  throne.     They  have  a  maxim  that  "  3 


BUT    ONE    LEGAL    WIFE.  265 

woman  is  thrice  dependant;  before  marriage,  on 
her  father ;  after  marriage,  on  her  husband ;  when 
a  widow,  on  her  son;"  but  this  seems  to  mean 
principally  with  reference  to  support  and  subsist- 
ence. 

The  ladies  of  the  better  class  are  instructed  in 
embroidering,  as  well  as  painting  on  silk,  and  music 
is  of  course  a  favourite  accomplishment.  They  are 
not  often  very  deeply  versed  in  letters,  but  cele- 
brated instances  are  sometimes  quoted  of  those  who 
have  been  skilled  in  composing  verses.  The  mod- 
esty of  manner  which  is  deemed  so  essential  to 
the  female  character  is  heightened  by  their  dress, 
frequently  of  magnificent  materials,  and  in  fashion 
extremely  becoming.  They  reckon  it  indecorous 
in  women  of  birth  and  breeding  to  show  even  their 
hands,  and  in  touching  or  moving  any  thing  these 
are  generally  covered  by  their  long  sleeves.  The 
Chinese  look  upon  the  dress  of  the  European  ladies 
(as  sometimes  represented  in  drawings  or  paint- 
ings) with  surprise,  and  they  certainly  present  a 
considerable  contrast  to  their  own.  Perhaps  in 
both  instances  the  just  medium  may  in  some  meas- 
ure be  departed  from,  although  in  contrary  direc- 
tions. 

There  is  no  point  on  which  greater  misconcep- 
tion has  prevailed  than  respecting  the  existence  "of 
universal  polygamy  in  China.  We  will  state  the 
case  exactl)^,  from  the  preface  to  the  translation  of 
the  "  Fortunate  Union,"  which  is  therein  declared 
to  be  "  a  more  faithful  picture  of  Chinese  manners, 
inasmuch  as  the  hero  espouses  but  one  ivife.  It  is 
not  strictly  true  that  their  laws  sanction  polygamy, 
though  they  permit  concubinage.  A  Chinese  can 
have  but  one  tsy,  or  wife,  properly  so  called,  who  is 
distinguished  by  a  title,  espoused  with  ceremonies, 
and  chosen  from  a  rank  of  hfe  totally  different  from 
his  tsie,  or  handmaids,  of  whom  he  may  have  as 
many  or  as  few  as  he  pleases;   and,  though  the 

Vol.  I— Z 


2G6  THE    CHINESE. 

offspring  of  the  latter  possess  many  of  the  rights 
of  legitimacy  (ranking,  however,  after  the  ehildren 
of  the  wife),  this  circumstance  makes  little  differ- 
ence as  to  the  truth  of  the  position.  Even  in  the 
present  romance,  the  profligate  rival  aims  at  effect- 
ing his  union  with  the  heroine,  only  by  setting  aside 
his  previous  marriage  with  her  cousin  as  informal. 
Any  Chinese  fiction,  therefore  (and  of  these  there 
are  many),  which  describes  a  man  espousing  twa 
wives,  is  in  this  respect  no  truer  a  picture  of  exist- 
ing manners,  than  in  respect  to  any  other  silly  or 
amusing  extravagance  which  it  may  happen  to  con- 
tain. In  fact,  the  wife  is  of  equal  rank  with  the 
husband  by  birth,  and  espoused  with  regular  mar- 
riage ceremonies ;  possessing,  moreover,  certain 
legal  rights,  such  as  they  are ;  the  handmaid  is  bought 
for  money,  and  received  into  the  house  nearly  like 
any  other  domestic.  The  principle  on  which  Chi- 
nese law  and  custom  admit  the  offspring  of  concu- 
binage to  legitimate  rights  is  obvious;  the  impor- 
tance which  attaches  in  that  country  to  the  secu- 
ring of  male  descendants.  It  is  plain  that  the  tsy 
and  the  tsie  stand  to  each  other  in  very  much  the 
same  relation  as  the  Sarah  and  the  Hagar  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  therefore  the  common  expression 
first  and  second  wife,  which  the  translator  himself 
has  used  on  former  occasions,  in  imitation  of  hiB 
predecessors,  is  hardly  correct." 

If  a  person  has  sons  by  his  wife  (for  daughters 
never  enter  into  the  account),  it  is  considered  de- 
rogatory to  take  a  handmaid  at  all ;  but,  if  he  has 
not,  it  is  of  course  allowable.  Still,  for  every  addi- 
tional repetition,  he  sinks  in  personal  respectability, 
and  none,  in  any  case,  but  the  rich  can  afford  it. 
But  the  strongest  dissuasives  to  a  prudent  person, 
on  these  occasions,  are  the  domestic  jealousies  that 
inevitably  fill  the  household  with  "confusion,  and 
sometimes  with  crime.  The  Chinese  have  a  maxim, 
that  "nine  women  in  ten  are  jealous,"  and  they 
speak  feelingly. 


MARRIAGE.  267 

Withont  doubt  it  is  a  double  calamity  to  a  Chi- 
nese wife  to  be  childless,  and  the  sentiment  of 
Creusa  ia  the  Greek  play  must  be  universal : — 

Kai  TwvS'  a7rdvT(i)v  la^arov  irciari  kukov 

CK  ^ovX>;s  Tivoi 

TwaiKOi,  us  oov  6(i)^a  ^{(T-JTOT-rjv  ayciv. 

Euripid.  (Iwv.  836.) 

The  feeling  is  very  strongly  portrayed  in  the 
drama  called  "An  Heir  in  Old  Age,"  translated 
from  the  Chinese  into  English,  and  from  the  Eng- 
lish version  into  French.  Here  the  spouse  of  an 
old  man,  who  has  only  one  daughter,  in  concert 
with  her  own  child,  and  the  young  man  to  whom 
the  latter  is  married,  drives  from  the  house  a  hand- 
maid, who,  being  pregnant,  is  an  object  of  uncon- 
querable jealousy  to  all  parties  except  the  old  man 
himself,  who  is  anxiously  expecting  an  heir.  Both 
the  woman  and  child  are  concealed  for  three  years, 
after  which  the  jealous  feeling  of  the  wife  is  over- 
come, only  by  the  consideration  that,  without  a  male 
heir,  they  shall  liave  nobody  to  sacrifice  to  their 
manes  after  death.  This  regard  to  the  sepulchral 
rites,  by  the  way,  is  another  feeling  not  peculiar  to 
China,  but  one  powerfully  developed  in  several  of 
the  Greek  plays ;  as  the  Ajax,  and  the  Choephori, 
of  Sophocles. 

The  women  whom  a  rich  Chinese  takes  in  the 
event  of  his  wife  proving  barren  are  generally  pur- 
chased for  a  sum  of  money.  They  are  of  course 
from  the  lowest  ranks,  entering  the  family  as  do- 
mestic slaves  ;  and  the  prevalence  of  this  condition 
may  be  traced  to  the  difficulty  of  subsistence  in  so 
thickly  peopled  a  country,  which  leads  many  to  sell 
their  children,  sometimes  their  wives,  and  even 
themselves.  Men  of  high  spirit  and  principle  have 
been  known  to  object  to  their  daughters  being  hand- 
maids even  to  the  emperor  himself;  tliough  of 
course   this  is  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 


268  THE  CHINESE. 

When  the  sovereign  has  espoused  an  emperess  with 
the  usual  ceremonies,  he  is  supphed  with  handmaids 
from  among  the  daughters  of  Tartars  principally, 
selected  on  account  of  their  beauty.  On  the  death 
of  an  emperor,  all  these  women  are  shut  up  in  a 
secluded  part  of  the  palace,  and  debarred  from  mar- 
riage with  any  one.  Marco  Polo,  with  his  usual 
fidelity,  describes  the  process  of  selecting  the  Tar- 
tar ladies  for  the  emperor,  in  the  way  that  appears 
exactly  to  be  followed  at  the  present  day. 

Marriage  among  the  Chinese,  with  every  circum- 
stance relating  to  it,  is  so  fully  described  in  the 
"  Fortunate  Union,"  that  the  curious  reader  ma)^  be 
referred  for  details  to  that  specimen  of  Chinese 
literature  and  manners.  It  may  be  as  well,  in  this 
place,  to  remark  on  the  principal  legal  conditions 
of  the  married  state,  and  then  to  describe  the  cere- 
monies attendant  on  the  espousals.  Their  maxim 
is,  that  "  a  married  woman  can  commit  no  crime ; 
the  responsibility  rests  with  her  husband. "  Through- 
out the  Chinese  law,  obligations  and  penalties  seem 
to  be  pretty  fairly  adjusted;  excepting  always  in 
cases  of  treason.  A  child,  a  wife,  or  a  dependant, 
being  very  much  at  the  disposal  of  the  father,  hus- 
band, or  master,  is  proportionately  exempt  from 
punishment  when  acting  under  their  authority.  A 
woman  under  marriage  assumes  her  husband's  sur- 
name. Marriage  between  all  persons  of  the  name 
surname  being  unlawful,  this  rule  must  of  course 
include  all  descendants  of  the  male  branch  for  ever ; 
and  as,  in  so  vast  a  population,  there  are  not  a  great 
many  more  than  one  hundred  surnames  through- 
out the  empire,  the  embarrassments  that  arise  from 
so  strict  a  law  must  be  considerable.  There  is  like- 
wise a  prohibition  of  wedlock  between  some  of  the 
nearest  relations  by  affinity ;  and  any  marriage  of 
an  officer  of  government  with  an  actress  is  void,  the 
parties  being,  besides,  punishable  with  sixty  blows. 

There  are  seven  grounds  of  divorce,  and  some  of 


MARRIAGE    CEREMONIES.  269 

them  are  amusing.  The  first,  barrenness,  would 
seem  to  be  superfluous,  as  there  is  a  remedy  pro- 
vided in  legal  concubinage;  but  the  truth  is,  that 
either  resource,  or  perhaps  both,  are  in  a  man's 
power  at  his  option.  The  other  causes  of  separa- 
tion are,  adultery,  disobedience  to  the  husband's 
parents,  talkativeness^  thieving,  ill  temper,  and  invet- 
-erate  infirmities.  Any  of  these,  however,  may  be 
set  aside  by  three  circumstances ;  the  wife  having 
mourned  for  her  husband's  parents  ;  the  family  hav- 
ing acquired  wealth  since  the  marriage  ;  and  the 
wife  being  without  parents  to  receive  her  back.  It 
is  in  all  cases  disreputable,  and  in  some  (as  those 
of  a  particular  rank)  illegal,  for  a  widow  to  marry 
again.  Whenever  a  widow  is  herself  unwilling, 
the  law  protects  her ;  and  should  she  act  by  the 
compulsion  of  parents  or  other  relations,  these  are 
severely  punishable.  Widows,  indeed,  have  a  very 
powerful  dissuasive  from  second  wedlock,  in  being 
absolute  mistresses  of  themselves  and  children  so 
long  as  they  remain  in  their  existing  condition. 

From  the  Buddhists,  who  say  that  "  those  con- 
nected in  a  previous  existence  become  united  in 
this,"  the  Chinese  have  borroAved  the  notion  that 
marriage  goes  by  destiny.  A  certain  deity,  whom 
they  style  Yue-laou,  "  the  old  man  of  the  moon," 
unites  with  a  silken  cord  (they  relate)  all  predes- 
tined couples,  after  which  nothing  can  prevent  their 
ultimate  union.  Early  marriages  are  promoted  by 
every  motive  that  can  influence  humanity,  and  we 
shall  have  to  notice  these  particulars  in  treating  of 
the  excessive  population  of  the  country.  Their 
maxim  is,  ''  there  are  three  great  acts  of  disregard 
to  parents,  and  to  die  without  progeny  is  the  chief.'''' 
The  most  essential  circumstance  in  a  respectable 
family  alliance  is,  that  there  should  be  equality  of 
rank  and  station  on  either  side,  or  that  "the  gates* 

*  Mun-hoo  teng-tuy. 
Z  2 


270  THE    CHINESE. 

should  correspond,"  as  the  Chinese  express  it. 
The  marriage  is  preceded  by  a  negotiation  called 
ping,  conducted  by  agents  or  go-betweens,  selected 
by  the  parents.  The  aid  of  judicial  astrology  is 
now  called  in,  and  the  horoscopes  of  the  two  par- 
ties compared,  under  the  title  of  the  "  eight  charac- 
ters," which  express  the  year,  month,  day,  and 
hour  of  the  nativities  of  the  intended  couple.  This 
being  settled,  presents  are  sent  by  the  bridegroom 
in  ratification  of  the  union ;  but  the  bride  in  ordi- 
nary cases  brings  neither  presents  nor  dower  to 
her  husband — dotem  uon  uxor  marito,  sed  maritus 
tixori  affert.  The  choice  of  a  lucky  day  is  considr- 
ered  of  such  importance,  that  if  the  Kalendar  (in 
■which  all  these  matters  are  noticed  with  the  science 
of  a  Partridge,  Moore,  or  Sidrophel  himself)  should 
be  unfavourable  in  its  auguries,  the  ceremony  is 
postponed  for  months.  These  superstitions  are 
common  to  all  times  and  countries.  In  the  Iphi- 
genia  at  Aulis,  one  of  the  plays  of  Euripides,  we 
have  an  exact  case  in  point.  Clytemnestra  says 
to  her  husband,  who  is  deceiving  her  about  their 
daughter,  "  On  what  day  shall  our  child  wed  ?" — to 
which  he  replies,  "When  the  orb  of  a  fortunate 
moon  shall  arrive." 

The  most  appropriate  and  felicitous  time  for  mar- 
riage is  considered  to  be  in  spring,  and  the  first 
moon  of  the  Chinese  year  (February)  is  preferred. 
It  is  in  this  month  that  the  peach-tree  blossoms  in 
China,  and  hence  there  are  constant  allusions  to  it 
in  connexion  with  marriage.  These  verses,  from 
the  elegant  pen  of  Sir  William  .Tones,  are  a  para- 
phrase of  a  literal  translation  which  that  indefati- 
gable scholar  obtained  of  a  passage  in  the  Chinese 
"Book  of  Odes." 

•'  Sweet  child  of  spring,  the  garden's  queen. 
Yon  peach-tree  charms  the  roving  sight 
Its  fragrant  leaves  how  richly  green, 
Its  blossoms  how  divmely  bright ! 


*-  MARRIAGE   CEREMONIES.  271 

"  So  softly  shines  the  beauteous  bride, 
By  love  and  conscious  virtue  led, 
O'er  her  new  mansion  to  preside. 
And  placid  joys  ai-ound  her  spread." 

Some  time  previous  to  the  day  fixed,  the  bride- 
groom is  invested  ceremoniously  with  a  dress  cap 
or  bonnet,  and  takes  an  additional  name.  The 
bride,  at  the  same  time,  whose  hair  had  until  this 
hung  down  in  long  tresses,  has  it  turned  up  in  the 
manner  of  married  women,  and  fastened  with  bod- 
kins.  When  the  wedding-day  arrives,  the  friends 
of  the  bridegroom  send  him  presents  in  the  morn- 
ing, with  their  congratulations.  Among  the  pres- 
ents are  live  geese,  which  are  emblematical  of  the 
concord  of  the  married  state,  and  some  of  these 
birds  are  always  carried  in  the  procession.  The 
bride's  relations  likewise  send  her  gifts,  consisting 
chiefly  of  female  hnery ;  and  her  young  sisters  and 
friends  of  her  own  sex  come  and  weep  with  her 
until  it  is  time  to  leave  the  house  of  her  parents. 
At  length,  when  the  evening  arrives,*  and  the  stars 
just  begin  to  be  visible,  the  bridegroom  comes  with 
an  ornamented  sedan,  and  a  cavalcade  of  lanterns, 
music,  &c.,  to  fetch  home  his  spouse.  On  their 
reaching  his  residence,  the  bride  is  carried  into  the 
house  in  the  arms  of  the  matrons  who  act  as  her 
friends,  and  lifted  over  a  pan  of  charcoal  at  the 
door;  the  meaning  of  which  ceremony  is  not  clear, 
but  which  may  have  reference  to  the  commence- 
ment of  hei*  household  duties.  She  soon  after 
issues  from  the  bridal  chamber  with  her  attendants 
into  the  great  hall,  bearing  the  prepared  Areca,  or 
betel-nut,  and  invites  the  guests  there  assembled  to 
partake  of  it.  Having  gone  through  some  ceremo- 
nies in  company  with  the  bridegroom,  she  is  led 

*  In  accordance  with  an  epithalainium  in  one  of  their  ancient 
books,  in  which  is  this  line,  "  The  three  stars  shine  on  the 
gata" 


272  THE    CHINESE. 

back  to  her  chamber,  where  she  is  unveiled  by  her 
future  husband.  A  table  is  then  spread,  and  the 
cup  of  alliance  is  drunk  together  by  the  young 
couple.  Some  fortunate  matron,  the  mother  of 
many  children,  then  enters  and  pronounces  a  bene- 
diction, as  well  as  going  through  the  form  of  laying 
the  nuptial  bed.  Meanwhile  the  party  of  friends 
in  the  hall  make  merry,  and  when  the  bridegroom 
joins  them  they  either  ply  him  with  wine,  or  not, 
according  to  the  character  and  grade  of  the  com- 
pany. When  the  hour  of  retirement  arrives,  they 
escort  him  to  the  door  of  the  chamber  in  a  body, 
and  then  disperse. 

On  the  following  day  the  new  couple  ^ome  forth 
to  the  great  hall,  where  they  adore  the  household 
gods,  and  pay  their  respects  to  their  parents  and 
nearest  relations.  They  then  return  to  their  cham- 
ber, where  they  receive  the  visits  of  their  young 
friends ;  and  the  whole  of  the  first  month  is  de- 
voted in  like  manner  to  leisure  and  amusement. 
On  the  third  day  after  the  wedding,  the  bride  pro- 
ceeds in  an  ornamented  sedan  to  visit  her  parents ; 
and  at  length,  when  the  month  is  expired,  the 
bride's  friends  send  her  a  particular  head-dress ; 
an  entertainment  is  partaken  of  by  the  relations 
of  both  parties,  and  the  marriage  ceremonies  are 
thereby  concluded.  On  some  occasions  the  bride 
is  Espoused  at  the  house  of  her  own  parents,  with 
some  little  difference  in  the  forms.  Both  these 
modes  are  detailed  in  the  novel  of  the  Fortunate 
Union. 

It  may  be  remarked  that,  as  so  many  parties  are 
concerned  in  the  conduct  of  the  negotiations  pre- 
vious to  marriage,  and  as  the  two  persons  princi- 
pally interested  never  see  each  other  the  whole 
time,  there  is  a  door  open  to  fraud  and  trickery, 
as  well  as  to  misunderstandings  of  all  kinds.  It 
cannot  be  supposed,  however,  nor  indeed  is  it  true 
in  practice,  that  the  bridegroom  has  never  in  any 


CHILDREN.  273 

case  seen  his  intended  spouse  previous  to  wedlock ; 
though  of  course  the  separation  of  the  sexes  must 
prevent  any  intimate  society  between  them.  The 
law  provides  for  most  cases  of  dispute  or  of  detect- 
ed imposture,  some  of  which  enter  into  the  plot  of 
the  novel  already  referred  to.  Both  parties  are 
called  upon  exphcitly  to  make  known  to  each 
other  the  existence  of  any  bodily  or  constitutional 
defect ;  what  the  true  age  of  each  is  ;  and  whether 
they  were  born  of  a  wife  or  a /concubine  ;  whether 
real  offspring,  or  only  adopted.  Should  there  be 
any  suppression  of  what  is  true,  or  any  allegation 
of  what  is  false,  the  penalties  are  severe.  The 
Chinese  law  prohibits  all  marriages  between  sub- 
jects and  foreigners,  and  even  forbids  any  allian- 
ces between  the  unsubdued  mountaineers,  called 
Meaou-tse,  in  the  interior  of  the  empire,  and  its 
own  people  in  the  neighbouring  plains. 

When  women  prove  childless,  they  pay  adoration 
to  the  goddess  Ku^n-yin,  a  principal  image  in  Bud- 
dhist temples,  Avhose  name  means  "  heedful  of  pray- 
ers" {ter  vocata  audit),  and  whose  functions  seem 
compounded  of  thos6  of  Venus  genetrix  and  Lu- 
cina.  There  is,  however,  the  widest  difference, 
in  their  estimation,  between  male  and  female  off- 
spring ;  the  former  are  as  eagerly  desired  as  the 
latter  are  generally  deprecated.  Sons  are  consid- 
ered in  this  country,  where  the  power  over  them 
is  so  absolute  through  life,  as  a  sure  support,  as 
well  as  a  probable  source  of  wealth  or  dignities, 
should  they  succeed  in  learning :  but  the  grand  ob- 
ject is  the  perpetuation  of  the  race,  to  sacrifice  at 
the  family  tombs.  Without  sons,  a  man  lives  with- 
out honour  or  satisfaction,  and  dies  unhappy ;  and, 
as  the  only  remedy,  he  is  permitted  to  adopt  the 
sons  of  his  younger  brothers.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  extreme  desire  of  male  offspring  leads 
parents  to  suborn  the  midwives  to  purchase  a  boy 
of  spme  poor  person,  and  substitute  it  for  the  girl 


274  THE    CHINESE. 

just  born.  This  is  termed  tow  loong,  hodn  foong— 
"  stealing  a  dragon  in  exchange  for  a  phenix." 

Their  maxim  is,  that,  as  the  emperor  should  have 
the  care  of  a  father  for  his  people,  a  father  should 
have  the  power  of  a  sovereign  over  his  family.  A 
man  is  even  able  to  sell  his  children  for  slaves,  as 
appears  from  the  constant  practice.  They  do  not 
subscribe  to  the  precept  of  Rousseau — "  Quand  cha^ 
cun  pourrait  s^aliener  hii-meme,  il  ne  pent  aliener  ses 
enfans.''''  How  completely  the  children  of  concu- 
bines pertain  to  the  lawful  wife  is  proved  by  this 
passage  in  the  drama  of  "  An  Heir  in  Old  Age," 
where,  in  addressing  his  wife,  the  old  man  says^ 
"  Seaou-mei  is  now  pregnant ;  whether  she  produces 
a  boy  or  a  girl,  the  same  will  be  your  property ; 
you  may  then  hire  out  her  services,  or  sell  her,  as 
it  best  pleases  you."  The  handmaids  are  in  fact 
only  domestic  slaves. 

The  birth  of  a  son  is  of  course  an  occasion  of 
great  rejoicing ;  the  family  or  surname  is  first  given, 
and  then  the  "  milk  name,"  which  is  generally  some 
diminutive  of  endearment.  A  month  after  the  event, 
the  relations  and  friends  between  them  send  the 
child  a  silver  plate,  on  which  are  engraved  the 
three  words,  "long-life,  honours,  felicity."  The 
boy  is  lessoned  in  behaviour  and  in  ceremonies  from 
his  earliest  childhood,  and  at  four  or  five  he  com- 
mences reading.  The  importance  of  general  edu- 
cation was  known  so  long  since  in  China,  that  a 
work  written  before  the  Christian  era  speaks  of  the 
"  ancient  system  of  instruction,"  which  required 
that  every  town  and  village,  down  to  only  a  few 
families,  should  have  a  common  school.  The  weal- 
thy Chinese  employ  private  teachers,  and  others 
send  their  sons  to  day-schools,  which  are  so  well 
attended  that  the  fees  paid  by  each  boy  are  ex- 
tremely small.  In  large  towns  there  are  night 
schools,  of  which  those  who  are  obliged  to  labour 
through  the  day  avail  themselves. 


EDUCATION.  275 

The  sixteen  discourses  of  the  Emperor  Yoong- 
ching,  called  the  Sacred  Edicts,  commence  with 
the  domestic  duties  as  the  foundation  of  the  po- 
litical ;  and  the  eleventh  treats  of  instructing  the 
younger  branches  of  a  family.  Dr.  Morrison,  in 
his  dictionary,  has  given  a  selection  from  one  hun- 
dred rules  or  maxims,  to  be  observed  at  a  school, 
some  of  which  are  extremely  good.  Among  other 
points,  the  habit  of  attention  is  dwelt  upon  as  of 
primary  importance,  and  boys  are  warned  against 
"repeating  with  the  mouth  while  the  heart  (or 
mind)  is  thinking  of  something  else."  They  are 
taught  never  to  be  satisfied  with  a  confused  or  in- 
distinct understanding  of  what  they  are  learning, 
but  to  ask  for  explanations ;  and  always  to  make  a 
personal  application  to  themselves  of  the  precepts 
which  they  learn.  Scholars  are  not  often  subject- 
ed to  corporal  punishments.  The  rule  is  to  try  the 
effects  of  rewards  and  of  persuasion,  until  it  is 
plain  that  these  will  not  operate ;  after  which  it  is 
the  custom  to  disgrace  a  boy  by  making  him  re- 
main on  his  knees  at  his  scat  before  the  whole 
school,  or  sometimes  at  the  door,  while  a  stick  of 
incense  (a  sort  of  slow  match)  burns  to  a  certain 
point :  the  last  resort  is  to  flog  him. 

The  object  of  the  government,  as  Dr.  ]Morrison 
justly  observed,  in  making  education  general,  is 
not  to  extend  the  bounds  of  knowledge,  but  to  im- 
part the  knowledge  already  possessed  to  as  large  a 
portion  as  possible  of  the  rising  generation,  and  "  to 
pluck  out  true  talent"  from  the  mass  of  the  com- 
munity for  its  own  service.  The  advancement  of 
learning,  or  discoveries  in  physical  science,  are 
not  in  its  contemplation.  It  prescribes  the  books 
to  be  studied ;  a  departure  from  which  is  hctcrodoxj/ ; 
and  discountenances  all  innovations  that  do  not 
originate  with  itself.  In  thi&  we  may  perceive  one 
of  the  causes,  not  only  of  the  stationar}'-  and  un- 
progressive  character  of  Chinese  institutions,  but 
likewise  of  their  permanency  aiid  continuance. 


276  THE    CHINESE. 

The  process  of  early  instruction  in  the  language 
is  this  :  they  first  teach  children  a  few  of  the  prin- 
cipal characters  (as  the  names  of  the  chief  objects 
in  nature  or  art)  exactly  as  we  do  the  letters,  by 
rude  pictures,  having  the  characters  attached.  Then 
follows  the  Santse-king,  or  "  trimetrical  classic," 
being  a  summary  of  infant  erudition,  conveyed  in 
chiming  lines  of  three  words  or  feet.  They  soon 
after  proceed  to  the  "Four  Books,"  which  contain 
the  doctrines  of  Confucius,  and  which,  with  the 
*'  Five  classics"  subsequently  added,  are  in  fact  the 
Chinese  scriptures.  The  Four  Books  they  learn 
by  heart  entirely,  and  the  whole  business  of  the 
literary  class  is  afterward  to  comment  on  them,  or 
compose  essays  on  their  texts.  Writing  is  taught 
by  tracing  the  characters.  With  their  hair  pencil, 
on  transparent  paper  placed  over  the  copy,  and 
they  commence  with  very  large  characters  in  the 
first  instance.  Specimens  of  this  species  of  calig- 
raphy  are  contained  in  the  Royal  Asiatic  Trans- 
actions. In  lieu  of  slates,  they  generally  use  boards 
painted  white  to  save  paper,  washing  out  the  wri- 
ting when  finished.  Instructers  are  of  course  very 
plentiful,  on  account  of  the  numbers  who  enter  the 
learned  profession,  and  fail  in  attaining  the  higher 
degrees. 

Every  principal  city  is  furnished  with  halls  of 
examination,  and  the  embassy  of  1816  was  lodg- 
ed in  one  of  these  buildings,  at  Nanheung-foo,  a 
town  at  the  bottom  of  the  pass  which  leads  north- 
ward from  Canton  province.  It.  consisted  of  a 
number  of  halls  and  courts,  surrounded  by  separate 
cells  for  the  candidates,  who  are  admitted  with 
nothing  but  blank  paper  and  the  implernents  of 
writing ;  a  part  of  the  system  which  corresponds 
with  our  college  examinations.  The  students  who 
succeed  in  their  own  district,  at  the  annual  exami- 
nation, are  ranked  as  Seicfsae,  or  bachelors,  and 
according  to  their  merits  are  draughted  for  farther 


EDUCATION.  277 

advancement,  until  they  become  fitted  for  the  trien- 
nial examination,  held  at  the  provincial  capital,  by 
an  officer  expressly  deputed  from  the  Hanlin  col- 
lege at  Peking.  The  papers  consist  of  moral  and 
political  essays  on  texts  selected  from  the  sacred 
books,  as  well  as  of  verses  on  given  subjects. 
Pains  are  taken  to  prevent  the  examiners  from 
knowing  the  authors  of  the  essays  and  poems  ;  but 
of  course  this  cannot  always  be  effectual  in  shut- 
ting out  abuse. 

Those  who  succeed  at  the  triennial  examinations 
attain  the  rank  of  kiu-jin,  which  may  be  properly 
termed  hcentiate,  as  it  qualifies  for  actual  employ- 
ment ;  and  once  in  three  years  all  these  licentiates 
repair  to  Peking  (their  expenses  being  paid  if  ne- 
cessary), to  be  examined  for  the  tsinsse,  or  doctor's 
degree,  to  which  only  thirty  can  be  admitted  at  one 
time.  From  these  doctors  are  selected  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Imperial  c^Ollege  of  Hanlin,  after  an  ex- 
amination held  in  the  palace  itself.  These  fortunate 
and  illustrious  persons  form  the  body  from  whom 
the  ministers  of  the  emperor  are  generally  chosen. 

A  man's  sons  may  or  may  not  be  instramental, 
by  their  literary  success,  in  reflecting  honour  on 
their  parents,  or  advancing  them  in  worldly  rank 
and  prosperity ;  but  the  mere  chance  of  this,  joined 
to  the  heavy  responsibility  for  their  conduct,  is  a 
great  inducement  to  fathers  to  bring  them  up  with 
care,  and  may  serve  to  account  for  the  great  and 
universal  prevalence  of  a  certain  degree  of  education 
throughout  the  empire.  Such  is  the  demand  on  ev- 
ery individual  for  exertion,  in  a  country  so  thickly 
peopled,  that  the  children  of  the  very  lowest  classes, 
whom  extreme  indigence  precludes  from  the  hope 
or  chance  of  rising  by  learning,  are  trained  to  labour 
and  to  the  cares  of  life  almost  from  the  time  they 
can  first  walk.  With  a  slight  stick  or  pole,  propor- 
tioned to  their  size,  across  their  shoulders,  young  chil- 
dren are  constantly  seen  trudging  along  vrithvreights. 

Vol.  I  —A  a 


278  THE    CHINESE. 

sometimes  nmch  heavier  than  they  ought  to  carry, 
or  busily  engaged  in  other  serious  employments,  as 
the  assistants  of  their  parents.  In  a  country  where 
the  youngest  cannot  afford  to  be  idle,  and  Avhere, 
as  their  proverb  strongly  expresses  it,  "  to  stop  the 
hand  is  the  way  to  stop  the  mouth,"  there  is  an  air 
of  staid  gravity  about  some  of  the  children  quite  un- 
suited  to  their  years. 

But  it  is  not  during  his  life  only  that  a  man  looks 
for  the  sei-vices  of  his  sons.  It  is  his  consolation, 
in  declining  years,  to  think  that  they  will  continue 
the  performance  of  the  prescribed  rites  in  the  hall 
of  ancestors,  and  at  the  family  tombs,  when  he  is 
no  more  ;  and  it  is  the  absence  of  this  prospect  that 
makes  the  childless  doubly  miserable.  The  super- 
stition derives  influence  from  the  importance  attach- 
ed by  the  government  to  this  species  of  posthumous 
duty  ;  a  neglect  of  which  is  punishable,  as  we  have 
seen,  by  the  laws.  Indeed,"  of  all  the  subjects  of 
their  care,  there  are  none  which  the  Chinese  so  reli- 
giously attend  to  as  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors, 
conceiving  that  any  neglect  is  sure  to  be  followed 
by  worldly  misfortune.  It  is  almost  the  only  thing 
that  approaches  to  the  character  of  a  "  rehgious 
sense"  among  them ;  for,  throughout  their  idolatrous 
superstitions,  there  is  a  remarkable  absence  of  rev- 
erence towards  the  idols  and  priests  of  the  Buddha 
and  Taou  sects.  The  want  of  ceremony  with  which 
they  treat  their  gods  is  not  more  surprising,  howev- 
er, than  the  apparently  impious  expressions  which 
are  occasionally  used  in  the  ancient  classics  of  Eu- 
rope towards  the  whole  family  of  Olympus  : — 

"  Tunc  cum  virguncula  Juno  !" 

When  a  parent  or  elder  relation  among  the  Chi- 
nese dies,  the  event  is  formally  announced  to  all 
the  branches  of  the  family  ;  each  side  of  the  doors 
is  distinguished  by  labels  in  white,  w-hich  is  the 


FUNERAL    RITES.  279 

mourning  colour.  The  lineal  descendants  of  the 
deceased,  clothed  in  coarse  white  cloth,  with  band- 
ages of  the  same  round  their  heads,  sit  weeping 
round  the  corpse  on  the  ground,  the  women  keeping 
up  a. dismal  howl  after  the  manner  of  the  Irish. 
In  the  meantime  the  friends  of  the  deceased  appear 
with  white  coverlets  of  linen  or  silk,  which  are 
placed  on  the  body  ;  the  eldest  son,  or  next  lineal 
male  descendant,  supported  on  each  side  by  rela- 
tions, and  bearing  in  his  hands  a  porcelain  bowl  con- 
taining two  copper  coins,  now  proceeds  to  the  river, 
or  the  nearest  well,  or  the  wet  ditch  of  the  city,  to 
"  buy  water,"  as  it  is  termed.  The  ceremony  must 
be  performed  by  the  eldest  soil's  son,  in  preference 
to  the  second  son,  and  entitles  him  to  a  double 
share  of  the  property,  which  in  other  respects  is  di- 
vided equally  among  the  sons.  The  form  of  wash- 
ing the  face  and  body  with  this  water  being  comple- 
ted, the  deceased  is  dressed  as,  in  life,  and  laid  in  a 
coffin,  of  which  the  planks  are  from  four  to  six 
inches  in  thickness,  and  the  bottom  strewed  with 
quick-lime.  On  being  closed,  it  is  made  air-tight  by 
cement,  being  besides  varnished  on  the  inside  and 
outside.  A  tablet  is  then  placed  on  it,  bearing  in- 
scribed the  name  and  titles  of  the  deceased,  as  they 
are  afterward  to  be  cut  upon  his  tomb. 

On  the  expiration  of  thrice  seven,  or  twenty-one 
days,  the  funeral  procession  takes  place,  the  tablet 
being  conveyed  in  a  gilded  sedan  or  pavilion,  with 
incense  and  offerings  before  it.  It  is  accompanied 
by  music  closely  resembling  the  Scottish  bagpipe, 
with  the  continual  repetition  of  three  successive 
strokes  on  a  sort  of  drum.  The  children  and  rela- 
tions of  both  sexes  follow  in  white,  without  much 
order  or  regularity,  and,  upon  reaching  the  grave, 
the  ceremonies  and  oblations  commence.  It  being 
a  part  of  their  superstition  that  money  and  garments 
must  be  burnt  for  the  use  of  the  deceased  in  the 
world  of  spirits,  these  are,  with  a  wise  economy, 


280  THE  CHINESE. 

represented  by  paper.  The  form  of  the  tomb, 
whether  large  or  small,  is  exactly  that  of  a  Greek 
a,  which,  if  taken  in  the  sense  of  "  the  end,"  is  an 
odd  accidental  coincidence.  Those  of  the  rich  and 
great  are  sometimes  very  large,  and  contain  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  masonry,  with  figures  of  ani- 
mals in  stone.  The  whole  detail  of  sepulchral  rites, 
with  the  sentiments  of  the  Chinese  concerning  the 
dead,  is  contained  in  the  drama  of  "  An  Heir  in 
Old  Age." 

After  the  interment,  the  tablet  of  the  deceased  is 
brought  back  in  procession,  and,  if  the  family  be 
rich,  it  is  placed  in  the  hall  of  ancestors  ;  if  poor,  in 
some  part  of  the  house  with  incense  before  it.  Twice 
in  every  year,  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  are  the  pe- 
riods fixed  for  performing  the  rites  to  the  dead,  but 
the  first  is  the  principal  period,  and  the  only  one 
commonly  attended  to.  Unlike  the  generahty  of 
Chinese  festivals,  which  are  regulated  by  the  moon 
(and  therefore  moveable),  this  is  determined  by  the 
sun,  and  occurs  annually  105  days  after  the  winter 
solstice,  i.  e.,  the  5th  of  April.  About  that  time  (for  a 
day  or  two  before  or  after  does  not  signify  to  them) 
the  whole  population  of  the  town  is  seen  trooping 
out  in  parties  to  the  hills,  to  repair  and  sweep  the 
tombs,  and  make  offerings,  leaving  behind  them,  on 
their  return  home,  long  streamers  of  red  and  white 
paper,  to  mark  the  fulfilment  of  their  rites.  Whole 
ranges  of  hills,  sprinkled  with  tombs,  may  at  that 
season  be  seen  covered  with  these  testimonials  of 
attention  to  the  departed,  fluttering  in  the  wind  and 
sunshine. 

Such  are  the  harmless,  if  not  meritorious  forms 
of  respect  for  the  dead,  which  the  Jesuits  wisely 
tolerated  in  their  converts,  knowing  the  conse- 
quences of  outraging  their  most  cherished  prejudi- 
ces ;  but  the  crowds  of  ignorant  monks  who  flock- 
ed to  the  breach  which  those  scientific  and  able 
men  had  opened,  jealous,  perhaps,  at  their  success, 


FUNERAL  RITES.  281 

brought  this  as  a  charge  against  them,  until  the 
point  became  one  of  serious  controversy  and  refer- 
ence to  the  pope.  His  hohness  being  determined 
to  govern  men's  consciences  at  Peking,  and  super- 
sede the  emperor's  authority  over  his  subjects, 
espoused  the  bigoted  and  unwiser  part,  which  of 
course  led  to  the  expulsion  of  the  monks  of  all 
varieties,  "black,  white,  and  gray,  with  all  their 
trumpery,"  and  prevented  those  social  and  politi- 
cal mischiefs  which  have  invariably  attended  their 
influence  elsewhere.  Such  a  strict  persecution  of 
the  Romish  converts  followed,  that,  after  the  lapse 
of  about  three  centuries,  the  number  of  them  at  the 
present  day  is  as  nothing  in  comparison  with  what 
it  once  was.  The  emperor  said  of  their  conduct, 
"  This  surely  is  as  contradictory  to  reason  and  so- 
cial order  as  the  wild  fury  of  a  mad  dog."  With 
reference  to  one  of  their  miracles  (of  which  they 
were  liberal),  he  adds,  "it  would  appear  to  be  a 
tale  which  their  ingenuity  has  contrived  ;  and,  upon 
this  principle,  what  is  there  we  may  not  readily  ex- 
pect them  to  say  or  write  ]" 

The  body  of  a  rich  person  is  generally  transport- 
ed to  his  native  province,  however  distant,  but  on 
the  journey  it  is  not  permitted  to  pass  through  any 
walled  town.  We  might  take  a  lesson  from  their 
wholesome  practice  of  allowing  no  interments 
within  cities,  and  of  confining  them  either  to  hills, 
or  the  most  barren  tracts  unavailable  for  cultiva- 
tion ;  thus  consulting  at  once  the  health  and  the 
subsistence  of  the  living.  To  perform  "the  rites 
at  the  hills'''  is  synonymous  with  the  tombs  in  Chi- 
nese. To  such  sanitary  regulations,  and  to  the 
antiseptic  effects  attending  the  constant  burning  of 
incense,  crackers,  &c.,  in  every  house,  we  may 
principally  attribute  the  remarkable  healthiness  of 
Canton  and  other  towns,  notwithstanding  the  draw- 
backs of  a  dense  population,  hot  climate,  low  site, 
indifferent  drainage  of  houses,  &c.  Indeed,  were 
A  a2 


282  THE    CHINESE. 

it  not  for  the  comparative  coldness  of  the  climate 
in  European  cities  where  such  abominations  pre- 
vail, the  gorging  the  earth  with  corpses  until  it 
refuses  to  cover  them,  and  the  filling  of  churches 
with  dead  bodies,  might  work  effects  sufficiently 
evident  to  all,  to  expel  prejudices  which, 

"  Sans  honorer  les  morts,  font  mourir  les  vivans."* 

No  corpse  is  ever  allowed  to  be  carried  up  a  land- 
ing-place, or  to  pass  through  a  gateway  Avhich  can 
in  any  way  be  construed  as  pertaining  to  the  empe- 
ror, on  account  of  the  supposed  ill  omen,  concern- 
ing which  the  Chinese  are  so  particular  as  seldom 
even  to  mention  death  except  by  a  circumlocution, 
as  "to  become  imm-ortal,''''  that  is,  in  the  modified 
sense  of  the  Buddhists. 

On  the  occasion  of  a  deceased  officer  from  a  Brit- 
ish ship  being  taken  ashore  for  burial  at  Macao, 
the  sailors  were  proceeding  with  the  coffin  up  the 
steps  leading  to  the  Chinese  custom-house,  when 
the  inmates  of  the  latter  turned  out  with  sticks  and 
staves  to  prevent  them.  The  sailors  being,  as 
usual,  quite  ready  to  fight,  particularly  on  an  occa- 
sion when  they  supposed  some  insult  was  intended 
to  the  dead,  it  is  likely  that  mischief  might  have 
ensued,  if  a  person  on  the  spot,  who  understood 
the  prejudice,  and  explained  it  satisfactorily,  had 
not  prevented  the  effects  of  the  misunderstanding. 

The  importance  which  the  Chinese  attach  to  the 
spot  in  which  a  body  should  be  buried,  is  some- 
times the  occasion  of  extraordinary  delay  in  the 
performance  of  the  funeral  ceremonies.  A  Hong 
merchant  at  Canton,  who  was  the  eldest  son  of  the 
family,  and  had  deferred  for  various  superstitious 
reasons  the  interment  of  his  father's  body,  was 
prosecuted  at  law  by  the  next  brother,  and  finally 
compelled  to  commit   it  to  the  tomb.     The  prin- 

*  Without  honouring  the  dead,  bring  death  to  the  living. 


PERIODS  OF  MOURNING.  283 

cipal  scruples  on  these  occasions  arise  from  cir- 
cumstances relative  to  the  situation  and  aspect  of 
the  sepulchre,  a  sort  of  geomantic  science,  in  which 
the  same  cheats  who  profess  astrology  affect  to  be 
adepts.  Their  calling  is  a  sufficiently  secure  one, 
since  it  is  as  difficult  to  prove  the  negative  as  the 
<iffirmatwe  of  those  propositions  in  which  they  deal ; 
and  the  dead  make  no  complaints,  being  on  such 
points,  as  the  doctor  in  Moliere  says,  "  Les  plus 
honnetes  gens  du,  monde^  The  choice  of  a  lucky 
spot  is  supposed  to  have  a  considerable  influence 
on  the  fortunes  of  the  survivers,  and  they  will 
sometimes,  after  the  lapse  of  many  years,  dig  up 
the  bones  with  care,  and  remove  them  to  a  distant 
and  more  favourable  site.  All  tombs  are  sacred  to 
How-too,  "  queen  earth,"  an  expression  which  has 
a  most  singular  parallel,  not  only  in  the  words,  but 
the  occasion  of  their  use,  in  a  passage  of  the  Elec- 
tra  of  Euripides,  where  Orestes,  invoking  the  shade 
of  his  father  at  the  tomb,  adds, — 

"  And  thou,  queen  earth,  to  whom  I  stretch  my  hands." 

The  original  and  strict  period  of  mourning  (ac- 
cording to  the  ritual)  is  three  years  for  a  parent, 
but  this  is  commonly  reduced  in  practice  to  thrice 
nine,  or  twenty-seven  months,  during  which  an  offi- 
cer of  the  highest  rank  must  retire  to  his  house, 
unless  under  a  particular  dispensation  from  the 
emperor.  The  full  period  of  three  years  must 
elapse  before  children  can  marry  subsequent  to  the 
death  of  their  parents.  The  colour  of  mourning  is 
white,  and  dull  gray,  or  ash,  with  round  buttons  of 
crystal  or  glass  in  lieu  of  gilt  ones ;  the  ornamen- 
ial  ball,  denoting  rank,  is  taken  from  the  cap,  as 
well  as  the  tuft  of  crimson  silk  which  falls  over  the 
latter.     As  the  Chinese  shave  their  heads,  the  neg- 

*  Electr.  677. 


284  THE  CHINESE. 

lect  and  desolation  of  mourning  are  indicated  by- 
letting  the  hair  grow  ;  for  the  same  reason  that 
some  nations,  who  wore  their  hair  long,  have  sha- 
ved it  during  that  period.  On  the  death  of  the  em- 
peror, the  same  observances  are  kept,  by  his  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  subjects,  as  on  the  death  of 
the  parent  of  each  individual;  the  whole  empire 
remains  unshaven  for  the  space  of  one  hundred 
days,  while  the  period  of  mourning  apparel  lasts 
longer,  and  all  officers  of  government  take  the  ball 
and  crimson  silk  from  their  caps.  It  is  said  that, 
on  the  death  of  Kang-hy's  emperess,  four  of  her 
maids  desired  to  be  buried  with  her  ;  but  that  wise 
monarch  would  not  permit  the  exercise  of  this 
piece  of  vScythian  barbarity,  the  practice  of  which 
he  abolished  for  ever  in  favour  of  the  more  humane 
and  civilized  customs  of  the  Chinese. 

In  regard  to  the  succession  to  paternal  property, 
the  disposal  of  it  by  will  is  restricted  except  to  the 
legal  heirs ;  and  we  have  seen  that,  to  a  very  lim- 
ited extent,  there  is  a  law  of  primogeniture,  inas- 
much as  the  eldest  son,  or  he  who  "buys  water" 
at  the  funeral  rites,  has  a  double  portion.  More 
correctly  speaking,  perhaps,  the  property  may  be 
said  to  descend  to  the  eldest  son*  in  trust  for  all 
the  younger  brothers,  over  whom  he  has  a  consid- 
erable authority,  and  who  commonly  live  together 
and  club  their  shares,  by  which  means  famihes  in 
this  over-peopfed  country  are  more  easily  subsisted 
than  they  would  otherwise  be,  and  every  man's  in- 
come is  made  to  go  the  farthest  possible.  To  this 
usage,  and  the  necessity  for  it,  may  be  attributed 
the  constant  exhortations  of  the  emperor,  in  the 
book  of  "  Sacred  Edicts,"  relative  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  union  and  concord  among  kindred  and  their 
famihes, 

*  Leu  lee,  sec.  78. 


MANNERS    AND   CUSTOMS.  285 


CHAPTER  VIIL 

MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS. 

The  New  Year. — Fireworks. — Contrariety  of  Usages  and  No- 
tions to  our  own.— Festivals. — Meeting  the  Spring. — Encour- 
agements to  Husbandry.— Festival  for  the  Dead.— Chinese 
Assumption.  —  Ceremonial  Usages.  —  Diplomatic  Forms.  — 
Feasts  and  Entertainments. — Dinners. — Particular  descrip- 
tion of  one. — Asiatic  Politeness. — Articles  of  Food  and  Drink. 
— Taverns  and  Eating-houses. — Amusements. — Gambling. — 
Conviviality,  —  Kite-flying.  —  Imperial  Hunts.  —  Skating  at 
Peking. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  people  in  the  world  that 
keeps  fewer  holydays  than  the  Chinese,  among 
whose  oi'erflowing  population  the  introduction  of 
a  Romish  calendar  of  saints  would  be  altogether 
disastrous.  Some  of  their  festivals  are  regulated 
by  the  sun,  and  are  therefore  fixed,  as  the  winter 
solstice,  and  the  period  for  visiting  the  tombs ;  but 
the  greater  number  being  dependant  on  the  moon, 
become  accordingly  moveable.  The  principal,  and 
almost  the  only  universal  season  of  leisure  and  re- 
joicing, is  the  new  year,  at  which  time,  indeed,  the 
whole  empire  may  be  said  to  be  almost  beside  itself. 
On  the  approach  of  the  new  moon  which  falls  near- 
est to  the  point  when  the  sun  is  in  the  15°  of  Aqua- 
rius (the  commencement  of  the  Chinese  civil  year), 
all  public  offices  are  closed  for  some  ten  days  in 
advance,  and  the  mandarins  lock  up  their  seals  until 
the  20th  of  the  first  moon.  On  the  night  of  the  last 
day  of  the  old  year  everybody  sits  up,  and  at  the 
moment  of  midnight  commences  an  interminable 
feu  de  joie  of  crackers  strung  together.  Indeed, 
the  consumption  of  this  noisy  species  of  firework 
is  so  enormous  that  the  air  becomes  absolutely 


THE  CHINESE. 

charged  with  nitre ;  and  a  governor  of  Canton  once 
in  vain  endeavoured  to  suppress  it,  on  the  ground 
of  the  undue  wastefulness  of  the  practice,  though 
it  probably  contributes  to  the  healthiness  of  Chinese 
towns.  From  midnight  until  dawn,  everybody  is 
engaged  in  the  performance  of  sacred  rites,  or  in 
preparing  his  house  for  the  solemnities  of  the  new 
year.  Many  go  through  the  ceremony  of  washing 
and  bathing  in  warm  water,  in  which  are  infused 
the  aromatic  leaves  of  the  hoang-py,  a  fruit-tree. 
Every  dwelling  is  swept  and  garnished,  and  the 
shrine  of  the  household  gods  decorated  with  huge 
porcelain  dishes  or  vases  containing  the  fragrant 
gourd,  the  large  citron,  called  by  them  "  the  hand 
of  Buddha"  (or  Fo),  and  the  flowers  of  the  narcissus. 
The  bulbs  of  this  last  are  placed  in  pots  or  vases 
filled  with  smooth  round  pebbles  and  water,  just  so 
long  before  the  time  as  to  be  in  full  blossom  exactly 
at  the  new  year.  Early  on  the  morning  of  the  first 
day  of  the  first  moon,  crowds  repair  to  the  different 
temples  in  their  best  attire,  kindred  and  acquaint- 
ance meet,  and  visits  are  paid  universally  to  offer 
the  compliments  of  the  season.  A  man  on  this  day 
hardly  knows  his  own  domestics,  so  finely  are  they 
attired;  and  on  all  sides  along  the  streets  may  be 
seen  the  bowings  and  half-kneelings,  with  the  af- 
fected efforts  to  prevent  them,  which  constitute  a 
part  of  Chinese  ceremonies  of  courtesy. 

The  large  red  tickets  of  congratulation  which 
they  send  to  each  other  on  this  occasion  have  a 
wood-cut,  representing  the  three  principal  felicities 
in  Chinese  estimation,  namely,  offspring,  official 
employment  (or  promotion),  and  long  life.  These 
are  indicated  by  the  figures  of  a  child,  a  mandarin, 
and  an  aged  figure  accompanied  by  a  stork,  the 
emblem  of  longevity.  For  the  space  of  the  first 
three  days  it  would  be  reckoned  unlucky,  if  not 
criminal,  to  perform  any  work  beyond  what  is  re- 
quired by  the  daily  exigences  of  life,  and  many 


THE  NEW  YEAR — FEAST  OF  LANTERNS.   287 

defer  their  occupations  for  about  twenty  days.  At 
every  house  the  visiter  is  received  with  ready  cups 
of  tea,  and  with  the  betel,  as  used  in  India  and  the 
Eastern  islands.  That  nothing  may  interrupt  the 
general  festivity,  the  termination  of  the  previous 
year  is  occupied  in  settling  all  outstanding  money- 
accounts,  and  the  discredit  is  so  great  of  not  being 
able  to  pay  up  at  that  period,  that  many  will  borrow, 
at  a  ruinous  rate,  of  Peter,  in  order  to  satisfy  the 
demands  of  Paul.  It  being  the  custom  to  kill  great 
numbers  of  capons  previous  to  the  new  year,  an 
unhappy  debtor,  who  cannot  arrange  with  his  cred- 
itors at  that  period,  is  said,  in  derision,  to  have  "  a 
capon's  destiny." 

The  new  year  is  the  principal  period  for  exchan- 
ging presents  among  friends.  These  commonly  con- 
sist of  delicacies,  as  rare  fruits,  sweetmeats,  fine 
tea,  and  occasionally  of  silk  stuffs  for  dresses,  and 
ornaments  of  various  kinds.  These  are  accompa- 
nied by  a  list  inscribed  on  a  red  ticket,  w^hich  it  is 
customary  to  return  by  the  bearer,  with  this  inscrip- 
tion, "received  with  thanks."  The  compHment  is 
immediately  to  be  returned  by  presents  of  the  same 
kind  and  in  the  same  manner,  the  servants  who 
convey  them  always  receiving  a  reward.  It  is  an 
unpardonable  insult  to  send  back  a  batch  of  these 
new-year's  gifts,  though,  if  they  are  deemed  too  lib- 
eral, a  selection  may  be  made,  and  the  rest  return- 
ed, with  this  note  beside  them  on  the  ticket,  "  The 
pearls  are  declined."  The  better  kinds  of  fruit,  tea, 
and  other  articles  used  on  these  occasions,  are  for 
the  same  reason  styled  "ceremonial,  or  present 
goods." 

The  first  full  moon  of  the  ne^v  year  is  the  Feast 
of  Lanterns,  being  a  display  of  ingenuity  and  taste 
in  the  construction  and  mechanism  of  an  infinite 
variety  of  lanterns  made  of  silk,  varnish,  horn,  pa- 
per, and  glass,  some  of  them  supplied  with  moving 
figures  of  men  galloping  on  horseback,  fighting,  o^ 


288  THE    CHINESE. 

performing  various  feats,  together  with  numerOTrs 
representations  of  beasts,  birds,  and  other  hving 
creatures,  the  whole  in  full  motion.  The  moving 
principle  in  these  is  the  same  with  that  of  the 
smoke-jack,  being  a  horizontal  wheel  turned  by  the 
draught  of  air  created  by  the  heat  of  the  lamp.  The 
circular  motion  is  communicated  in  various  direc- 
tions by  fine  threads  attached  to  the  moving  figures. 
The  general  eftect  is  extremely  good ;  though,  as 
objects  of  real  use,  the  Chinese  lamps  labour  under 
the  disadvantage  of  giving  but  a  poor  light,  which 
arises  in  part  from  the  opacity  of  the  materials,  and 
the  superfluity  of  ornament,  but  principally  from  the 
badness  of  the  lamp  itself,  which  is  simply  a  cotton 
wick  immersed  in  a  cup  of  oil ;  and  they  have  no 
way  of  increasing  the  light  except  by  adding  to  the 
number  of  wicks.  They  seem  to  admire  our  Argand 
lamps,  but  seldom  use  them,  except  in  compliment 
to  European  guests  ;  and,  even  when  received  as 
presents,  they  may  frequently  be  seen  laid  by  in  a 
dusty  corner. 

The  fireworks  of  the  Chinese  are  sometimes  in- 
genious and  entertaining,  rather,  however,  on  ac- 
count of  the  variety  of  moving  figures  which  they 
exhibit,  than  the  brilliancy  or  skill  of  the  pyrotech- 
ny,  which  is  inferior  to  our  own.  Their  best  thing 
of  the  kind  is  what  Europeans  call  a  drum,  from  its 
being  a  cylindrical  case,  in  which  is  contained  a 
multitude  of  figures  folded  into  a  small  space,  and 
so  contrived  as  to  drop  in  succession  on  strings, 
and  remain  suspended  in  motion,  during  the  explo- 
sion of  the  various  fireworks  contained  within  the 
cyhnder.  They  hkewise  contrive  to  make  paper 
figures  of  boats  to  float  and  move  upon  the  water,  by 
means  of  a.  stream  of  fire  issuing  from  the  stern. 
Their  rockets  are  bad,  but  blue  hghts  they  manufac- 
ture sufficiently  well  for  the  use  of  European  ships. 

In  their  diversions  the  Chinese  have  much  of 
that  childish  character  vrhich  distinguishes-  other 


CONTRARIETY    OP   USAGES.  289 

Asiatics.  Science,  as  an  amusement,  may  be  said 
to  be  entirely  wanting  to  them,  and  the  intellect 
cannot  be  unbended  from  the  pursuits  of  business 
by  the  rational  conversation  or  occupations  which 
distinguish  the  superior  portions  of  European  soci- 
ety. The  mind  under  a  despotism  has  few  of  those 
calls  for  exertion,  among  the  bulk  of  the  people, 
which  in  free  states  give  it  manly  strength  and  vig- 
our. Bearing  no  part  in  public  transactions,  and 
living  in  uninterrupted  peace,  the  uniform  insipidity 
of  their  existence  is  relieved  by  any,  even  the  most 
frivolous  and  puerile  amusements.  This  feature,  as 
well  as  the  very  striking  contrariety  of  Chinese  cus- 
toms, in  comparison  with  our  own,  is  given  with 
sufficient  correctness  in  the  following  passages 
from  a  little  work  printed  at  Macao,  which  are  in- 
serted here,  divested  of  some  of  the  buffoonery  of 
the  original  : — 

"  On  inquiring  of  the  boatman  in  what  direction 
Macao  lay,  I  was  answered,  in  the  west-north,  the 
wind,  as  I  was  informed,  being  east-south.  We  do 
not  say  so  in  Europe,  thought  I ;  but  imagine  my 
surprise  when,  in  explaining  the  utihty  of  the  com- 
pass, the  boatman  added,  that  the  needle  pointed  to 
the  south  !  Desirous  to  change  the  subject.  I  remark- 
ed that  I  concluded  he  was  about  to  proceed  to  some 
high  festival,  or  merrimaking,  as  his  dress  was 
completely  white.  He  told  me,  with  a  look  of 
much  dejection,  that  his  only  brother  had  died  the 
week  before,  and  that  he  was  in  the  deepest  mourn- 
ing for  him.  On  my  landing,  the  first  object  that 
attracted  my  attention  was  a  miUtary  mandarin, 
who  wore  an  embroidered  petticoat,  with  a  string 
of  beads  round  his  neck,  and  who  besides  carried  a 
fan ;  and  it  was  with  some  dismay  I  observed  him 
mount  on  the  right  side  of  his  horse.  I  was  sur- 
rounded by  natives,  all  of  whom  had  the  hair  sha- 
ven from  the  forepart  of  the  head,  while  a  portion 

Vol.  I.— B  b 


290  THE    CHINESE. 

of  them  permitted  it  to  grow  on  their  faces.  On 
my  way  to  the  house  prepared  for  my  reception,  I 
saw  two  Chinese  boys  discussing  with  much  ear- 
nestness who  should  be  the  possessor  of  an  orange. 
They  debated  the  point  with  a  vast  variety  of  ges- 
ture, and  at  length,  without  venturing  to  fight  about 
it,  sat  down  and  divided  the  orange  equally  between 

them At  that  moment  my  attention  was  drawn 

by  several  old  Chinese,  some  of  whom  had  gray 
beards,  and  nearly  all  of  them  huge  goggling  spec- 
tacles. A  few  were  chirruping  and  chucMing  to 
singing-birds,  which  they  carried  in  bamboo  cages, 
or  perched  on  a  stick ;  others  were  catching  flies  to 
feed  the  birds  :  the  remainder  of  the  party  seemed 
to  be  delightfully  employed  in  flying  paper  kites, 
while  a  group  of  boys  were  gravely  looking  on,  and 
regarding  these  innocent  occupations  of  their  se- 
niors with  the  most  serious  and  gratified  attention. 
....I  was  resolute  in  my  determination  to  persevere, 
and  the  next  morning  found  me  provided  with  a 
Chinese  master,  who  happily  understood  Enghsh. 
I  was  fully  prepared  to  be  told  that  I  was  about  to 
study  a  language  without  an  alphabet,  but  was 
somewhat  astonished,  on  his  opening  the  Chinese 
volume,  to  find  him  begin  at  what  I  had  all  my  life 
previously  considered  the  end  of  the  book.  He 
read  the  date  of  the  publication — '  The  fifth  year, 
tenth  month,  twenty-third  day.' — '  We  arrange  our 
dates  differently,'  I  observed;  and  begged  that  he 
would  speak  oi"  their  ceremonials.  He  commenced 
by  saying, '  When  you  receive  a  distinguished  guest, 
do  not  fail  to  place  him  on  your  left  hand,  for  that 
is  the  seat  of  honour  ;  and  be  cautious  not  to  un- 
cover the  head,  as  it  would  be  an  unbecoming  act 
of  familiarity.'  Hardly  prepared  for  this  blow  to 
my  established  notions,  I  requested  he  would  dis- 
course of  their  philosophy.  He  reopened  the  vol- 
ume, and  read  with  becoming  gravity,  '  The  most 
learned  men  are  decidedly  of  opinion  that  the  seat 


FESTIVALS.  291 

of  the  human  understanding  is  the  stomach.'*  I 
seized  the  vokmie  in  despair,  and  rushed  from  the 
apartment." 

A  festival  much  honoured  by  the  Chinese,  and 
indicative  of  their  ancient  regard  for  agriculture, 
is  that  which  takes  place  when  the  sun  reaches  the 
150  of  Aquarius.  The  governor  of  every  capital 
city  issues  in  state  towards  the  eastern  gate,  to 
*'  meet  the  spring,"  which  is  represented  by  a  pro- 
cession bearing  a  huge  clay  figure  of  the  buffalo, 
called  by  the  Chinese  "water-bullock"  (from  its 
propensity  for  muddy  shallows),  which  is  always 
used  to  drag  their  plough  through  the  flooded  rice- 
grounds.  The  train  is  attended  by  litters,  on  which 
are  borne  children  fancifully  dressed,  and  decorated 
with  flowers,  representing  mythological  personages ; 
and  the  whole  is  accompanied  by  a  band  of  musi- 
cians. When  they  have  reached  the  governor's 
house,  he  delivers  a  discourse  in  his  capacity  of 
Priest  of  Spring,  recommending  the  care  of  hus- 
bandry, and,  after  he  has  struck  the  clay  buffalo 
thrice  with  a  whip,  the  people  fall  upon  it  with 
stones,  and  break  in  pieces  the  image,  whose  hol- 
low inside  is  filled  with  a  multitude  of  smaller  im- 
ages in  clay,  for  which  they  scramble.  This  cer- 
emony bears  some  resemblance  to  the  procession 
of  the  bull  Apis  in  ancient  Egypt,  which  was  con- 
nected in  like  manner  with  the  labours  of  agricul- 
ture and  the  hopes  of  an  abundant  season. 

The  emperor  himself,  at  about  the  same  period 
of  the  year,  honours  the  profession  of  husbandry  by 
going  through  the  ceremony  of  holding  the  plough. 
Accompanied  by  some  princes  of  the  blood,  and  a 
selection  of  the  principal  ministers,  he  proceeds  to 
a  field  set  apart  for  the  purpose,  in  the  enclosure 
which  surrounds  the  Temple  of  the  Earth,  where 
ever)'^  thing  has  been  duly  prepared  by  regular  hus- 

*  They  place  it  in  the  heart. 


292  THE    CHINESE. 

bandmen  in  attendance.  After  certain  sacrifices,  con- 
sisting of  grain  which  has  been  preserved  from  the 
produce  of  the  same  field,  the  emperor  ploughs  a 
few  furrows,  after  which  he  is  followed  by  the 
princes  and  ministers  in  order.  The  "  five  sprts  of 
grain"  are  then  sown,  and  when  the  emperor  has 
viewed  the  completion  of  the  work  by  the  husband- 
men present,  the  field  is  committed  to  the  charge  of 
an  officer,  whose  business  it  is  to  collect  and  store 
the  produce  for  sacrifices. 

The  same  countenance  and  example  which  the 
emperor  affords  in  person  to  the  production  of  the 
principal  materials  of  food,  are  given  by  the  em- 
peress  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mulberiy  and  the 
rearing  of  silk-worms,  the  sources  whence  they  de- 
rive their  chief  substance  for  clothing,  and  the  care 
of  which  for  the  most  part  comes  under  the  female 
department.  In  the  ninth  moon,  the  emperess  pro- 
ceeds with  her  principal  ladies  to  sacrifice  at  the 
altar  of  the  inventor  of  the  silk  manufacture; 
and  when  that  ceremony  is  concluded,  they  collect 
a  quantity  of  the  mulberry-leaves,  which  are  devo- 
ted to  the  nourishment  of  the  imperial  depot  of  silk- 
worms. Various  other  processes  connected  with 
the  same  business  are  gone  through,  as  heating  the 
cocoons  in  water,  winding  off  the  filament,  &c.  ; 
and  so  the  ceremony  concludes.  Of  the  sixteen 
"  Sacred  Edicts"  addressed  to  the  people,  the  fourth 
relates  exclusively  to  the  two  foregoing  subjects. 
"Attend  (it  is  said)  to  your  farms  and  mulberry- 
trees,  that  you  may  have  sufficient  food  and  cloth- 
ing;" and  they  are  reminded  that,  although  only 
four  of  the  provinces  (all  of  them  cut  by  the  30th 
parallel  of  latitude)  produce  silk  in  perfection,  yet 
there  are  the  equally  useful  materials  elsewhere  of 
hemp  and  cotton.  "  Thus  different  are  the  sources 
whence  clothing  is  procured ;  but  the  duty  of  pre- 
paring it,  as  exemplified  in  the  cultivation  of  the  mul- 
berry-tree, is  one  and  the  same."     One  of  the  em- 


FESTIVALS.  293 

perors  of  the  present  dynasty  caused  a  work  to  be 
published  expressly  in  illustration  of  the  two  great 
departments  of  native  industry.  It  is  styled  Keng- 
che  Too,  "  Illustrations  of  Husbandry  and  Weaving^" 
and  consists  of  numerous  wood-cuts,  representing 
the  various  processes  in  the  production  of  rice  and 
silk,  with  letter-press  descriptions.  The  great  pref- 
erence which  the  rulers  of  China  give  to  such  kinds 
of  industry  over  the  pursuits  of  commerce,  but  es- 
pecially/oreio-zi  commerce,  would  seem  to  be  dic- 
tated by  a  sentiment  analogous  to  that  which  is  con- 
veyed in  four  of  Goldsmith's  lines  : — 

"  That  trade's  proud  empire  hastes  to  swift  decay, 
As  ocean  sweeps  the  labour'd  mole  away  ; 
While  self-dependant  states  can  time  defy, 
As  rocks  resist  the  billows  and  the  sky." 

The  principal  public  festivals  of  China  that  re- 
main to  be  noticed  are  not  numerous.  The  fifth 
day  of  the  fifth  moon,  which  usually  occurs  in  June, 
is  celebrated  in  a  way  which  cannot  fail  to  excite 
the  attention  of  a  visiter  to  Canton,  Very  long, 
narrow  boats,  built  for  the  purpose,  and  manned  by 
forty  to  sixty,  and  sometimes  eighty  men  with  pad- 
dles, who  keep  time  to  the  beat  of  a  gong,  with 
which  one  of  the  crew  stands  up  in  the  boat.  These 
race  against  each  other  on  the  rivers  with  great  heat 
and  emulation,  and  accidents  frequently  occur  from 
the  upsetting  or  breaking  of  the  "  dragon-boats,"  as 
they  are  called  from  their  great  length.  This  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  few  athletic  diversions  of  the 
Chinese, 

On  the  first  day  of  the  seventh  moon,  or  some 
time  in  the  month  of  August,  they  have  a  festival 
for  the  benefit  of  their  departed  relatives  in  the 
world  of  spirits.  It  is  not  a  domestic  celebration, 
however,  but  a  public  one  :  large  mat  houses  are 
erected,  ornamented  with  lanterns  and  chandeliers, 
in  which  are  placed  images  of  the  infernal  deities, 
Bb2 


294  THE  CHINESE. 

including  Yen-Wdng,  the  Chinese  PhUo.  Priests 
of  the  Buddha  sect  are  engaged  to  chant  masses 
for  the  dead,  offerings  of  food  are  presented,  and 
large  quantities  of  paper,  representing  clothes,  are 
burnt,  in  order  that  they  may  pass  into  the  other 
world  for  the  use  of  the  departed.  On  these  occa- 
sions may  be  seen  representations  of  the  future 
state  of  the  Buddhists,  with  the  torments  of  the 
damned,  and  the  various  gradations  of  misery  and 
happiness  in  the  life  to  come.  These  celebrations 
being  calculated  to  bring  large  numbers  together, 
appear  to  consist  in  a  great  measure  of  feasting  and 
entertainment ;  and  they  are  said  to  have  arisen 
from  some  tradition  of  a  young  man  who  went 
down  to  the  nether  world  to  bring  back,  not  his 
wife,  but  (what  is  much  more  suitable  to  Chinese 
sentiment)  his  mother.  According  to  the  story, 
this  Asiatic  Orpheus  was  more  successful  than  the 
Thracian. 

We  proceed  now  to  their  ordinary  usages  in  so- 
cial intercourse.  The  importance  which  the  Chi- 
nese attach  to  ceremonies  might  perhaps  be  sup- 
posed to  produce  in  them  a  constrained  stiffness 
and  formality  of  manner ;  but,  notwithstanding  the 
apparent  encumbrance  of  ceremony  prescribed  on 
solemn  occasions,  our  embassies  have  proved  that 
persons  of  high  authority  and  station  are  distin- 
guished generally  in  their  address  by  a  dignified 
simplicity  and  ease.  This  does  not,  however,  pre- 
vent their  laying  a  great  stress  on  precedence, 
especially  on  public  occasions,  where  the  specta- 
tors are  numerous  ;  tmd  in  the  case  of  foreign  em- 
bassies they  will  always  do  their  utmost  to  main- 
tain (as  the^  think)  the  superiority  of  their  own 
court  by  placing  themselves  before  their  guests. 
The  following  extract,  from  Sir  George  Staunton's 
unpubUshed  journal  of  the  last  embassy,  is  in  point: 
—"A  message  had  come  from  the  legate  to  say, 
that,  as  the  passage  of  the  next  sluice  on  the  canal 


CHINESE    ASSUMPTION.  295 

was  attended  with  some  risk,  the  ambassador  had 
better  go  on  shore,  and  that  he  should  be  ready  to 
receive  his  lordship  in  a  tent  on  the  follxjwing 
morning.  To  this  it  was  returned  for  answer,  that, 
if  it  was  proposed  to  meet  on  any  particular  busi- 
ness, the  ambassador  would  attend ;  but  that  other- 
wise he  begged  to  decline  it,  having  observed  that 
the  legate  alw^ays  assumed  the  highest  seat,  al- 
though in  his  visits  to  the  ambassador  the  first 
place  had  invariably  been  given  to  him.  Kuang- 
Tajin  replied  by  saying,  that  he  did  this  merely  be- 
cause his  situation  obliged  him :  w^ord  was  accord- 
ingly sent  that  his  excellency  would  be  glad  to 
meet  the  poo-ching-sse,  or  treasurer,  whose  station 
did  not  oblige  him  to  assume  the  highest  seat.  In 
the  morning,  after  breakfast,  three  chairs  arrived 
for  the  ambassador  and  commissioners,  and  on 
their  way  they  crossed  the  sluice,  which  was  to  be 
passed  by  their  boats,  over  a  temporary  range  of 
boards.  Immediately  on  the  other  side  stood  the 
tent,  a  neat  structure  of  coloured  cloth  in  stripes, 
which  we  were  requested  by  the  attendants  to  en- 
ter, and  take  our  seats.  The  legate,  attended  by 
the  treasurer,  soon  came  in,  and,  after  conversing 
for  a  short  time  on  their  legs,  the  ambassador  re- 
quested that  Kuang-Tajin  would  sit  dowm,  saying 
he  would  waive  all  claims  as  a  guest  to  the  first 
place.  The  legate  upon  this  proceeded  to  the  first 
seat,  and  the  treasurer,  without  the  least  ceremony, 
walked  towards  the  second.  On  this  the  ambas- 
sador desired  it  might  be  intimated  that,  though  he 
was  ready  to  yield  to  the  one,  he  would  not  con- 
sent to  sit  below  the  other ;  and  the  treasurer, 
rather  than  take  the  third  place,  marched  out  of 
the  tent." 

This  incivility  to  Europeans  is  the  more  unpar- 
donable, as  among  themselves  it  is  the  rule  in  gen- 
eral, during  visits,  to  contend  for  the  lowest  seat, 
and  they  would  be  heartily  ashamed  of  the  opposite 


29G  THE    CHINESE. 

ill-breeding  towards  each  other;  but  they  view 
strangers  as  an  inferior  caste  altogether.  Their 
arm-chairs  are  always  ranged  in  regular  order, 
and,  being  very  bulky  and  solid,  like  our  oldfash- 
ioned  seats  of  former  times,  they  are  not  easily  re- 
moved. "  In  Chinese  apartments  there  is  placed  a 
broad  couch,  in  size  approaching  to  a  bed,  called  a 
kdng.  On  the  middle  of  this  is  planted  a  little  table 
about  a  foot  in  height,  intended  to  rest  the  arm,  or 
place  teacups  upon.  On  either  side  of  this  httle 
table,  on  the  couch,  sit  the  two  principal  persons, 
fronting  the  entrance ;  and  from  the  ends  of  the 
couch,  at  right  angles  to  it,  descend  two  rows  of 
arm-chairs  for  the  other  guests,  who  sit  nearest  to 
the  couch,  according  to  their  rank."* 

When  any  one  proceeds  in  his  chair  to  pay  a 
visit,  his  attendants  present  his  ticket  at  the  gate, 
consisting  of  his  name  and  titles  written  down  the 
middle  of  a  folded  sheet  of  red  paper,  ornamented 
with  gold  leaf ;  and  there  is  sometimes  enough  pa- 
per in  these,  when  opened  out  like  a  screen,  to  ex- 
tend across  a  room.  If  the  visiter  is  in  mourning, 
his  ticket  is  white,  with  blue  letters.  According  to 
the  relative  rank  of  the  parties,  the  person  visited 
comes  out  a  greater  or  less  distance  to  receive  his 
guest,  and,  when  they  meet,  their  genuflections, 
and  endeavours  to  prevent  the  same,  are  also  ac- 
cording to  rule.  These  matters  are  all  so  well  under- 
stood by  those  who  are  bred  up  to  them,  that  they 
occasion  no  embarrassment  whatever  to  the  Chi- 
nese. The  ordinary  salutation  among  equals  is  to 
join  the  closed  hands,  and  lift  them  two  or  three 
times  towards  the  head,  saying,  Haou — tsing^  tsing; 
that  is,  "  Are  you  well  1 — Hail,  hail !"  Hence  is 
derived,  we  beUeve,  the  Canton  jargon  of  ch^n-chin. 

Soon  after  being  seated,  the  attendants  invariably 
enter  with  porcelain  cups  furnished  with  covers,  in 

^       *  Morrison's  Journal,  18i6. 


CEREMONIAL  USAGES.  297 

each  of  which,  on  removmg  the  little  saucer  by 
which  it  is  surmounted,  appears  a  small  quantity 
of  fine  tea-leaves,  on  which  boiling  water  has  been 
poured  ;  and  thus  it  is  that  they  drink  the  infusion, 
without  the  addition  of  either  sugar  or  milk.  The 
delicate  aroma  of  fine  tea  is  no  doubt  more  clearly 
distinguished  in  this  mode  of  taking  it,  and  a  little 
habit  leads  many  Europeans  in  China  to  relish  the 
custom.  Though  the  infusion  is  generally  made  in 
the  cup,  they  occasionally  use  teapots  of  antique 
and  tasteful  shapes,  which  are  not  unfrequently 
made  of  tutenague  externally,  covering  earthen- 
ware on  the  inside.  At  visits,  a  circular  japanned 
tray  is  frequently  brought  in,  having  numerous 
compartments  radiating  from  the  centre,  in  which 
are  a  variety  of  sweetmeats  or  dried  fruits.  These 
are  taken  up  with  a  small  two-pronged  fork  of  sil- 
ver. On  the  conclusion  of  a  visit,  the  host  con- 
ducts his  guest,  if  he  wishes  to  do  him  high  honour, 
even  to  his  sedan,  and  there  remains  until  he  is 
carried  off";  but  on  ordinary  occasions  it  is  deemed 
sufficient  to  go  as  far  as  the  top  of  the  stone  steps, 
if  there  are  any,  or  merely  to  the  door  of  the  apart- 
ment. 

Only  mandarins,  or  official  persons,  can  be  car- 
ried by  four  bearers,  or  accompanied  by  a  train  of 
attendants  :  these  are  marshalled  in  two  files  before 
the  chair.  One  pair  of  the  myrmidons  carry  gongs, 
on  which  they  strike  at  regular  intervals ;  another 
pair  utter,  likewise  at  intervals,  a  long-drawn  shout, 
or  rather  yell,  to  denote  the  approach  of  the  great 
man ;  a  third  pair  carry  chains,  which  they  jingle  in 
concert,  being  in  fact  jailers  or  executioners,  with 
high  caps  of  iron  wire,  in  which  is  stuck  a  gray 
feather.  Then  come  two  fellows  with  the  usual 
bamboo,  or  bastinade  ;  and  the  cortege  is  made  up 
by  the  servants  and  other  followers,  some  of  whom 
carry  red  umbrellas  of  dignity,  others  large  red 
boards,  on  which  are  inscribed  in  gilt  characters 


298  THE  CHINESE. 

the  officer's  titles.  The  populace  who  meet  such 
a  procession  are  not  to  denote  their  respect  in  any 
other  way  than  by  standing  aside,  with  their  arms 
hanging  close  to  their  sides,  and  their  eyes  on  the 
ground.  It  is  only  when  called  or  taken  before  a 
tribunal  that  they  are  obliged  to  kneel ;  and  these 
are  occasions  which  most  Cliinese  are  not  very 
willing  to  seek. 

Phiglish  residents  at  Canton  have  occasionally 
had  opportunities  of  taking  a  part  in  the  formal 
dinners  of  the  Chinese ;  but  few  have  seen  a  sol- 
emn feast  conferred  by  the  emperor,  which  may  be 
described  from  an  unpublished  journal  of  the  last 
embassy.  "  The  ambassador  informed  the  gentle- 
men of  his  suite  that  he  was  going  to  perform  the 
same  salutation  of  respect,  before  the  yellow  screen, 
that  he  was  accustomed  to  make  to  the  vacant 
throne  of  his  sovereign  in  the  House  of  Lords.  We 
were  directed  to  keep  our  eyes  on  him,  and  do  ex- 
actly as  he  did.  A  low  solemn  hymn  of  not  un- 
pleasing  melody  now  commenced,  and  at  the  voice 
of  a  crier,  the  two  imperial  legates  fell  prostrate 
three  times,  and  each  time  thrice  struck  the  tloor 
with  their  foreheads  :  a  cranio-verberative  sound 
being  audible  amid  the  deep  silence  which  prevail- 
ed around.  The  ambassador  and  his  suite,  stand- 
ing up  in  the  meanwhile,  made  nine  profound  bows. 
Thus  far  we  had  got  very  M^ell  over  the  ground, 
without  doing  that  which  no  representatives  of  Chi- 
nese majesty  ever  condescended  to  do  to  a  foreigner, 
until  Genghis  Kh^n  first  made  them.  They  here 
conceded  to  us  the  point  on  which  they  broke  off 
with  Count  Golovkin,  the  Russian  ambassador, 
though  they  yielded  it  to  Lord  Macartney. 

"  When  the  ceremony  was  over,  the  feast  was 
brought  in,  and  the  theatrical  entertainments  com- 
menced. The  legates  sat  to  the  left,  on  an  eleva- 
tion of  one  step ;  and  the  ambassador  and  two  com- 
missioners on  the  same  elevation  to  the  right.     The 


FEASTS    AND    ENTERTAINMENTS.  299 

Other  Chinese  grandees  sat  on  the  left,  a  little  below 
the  legates  ;  and  the  gentlemen  of  the  embassy  to 
the  right,  below  his  lordship  and  the  commissioners. 
The  two  hnes  thus  faced  each  other  down  the  room. 
As  no  chairs  can  be  used  where  the  emperor  is  pres- 
ent, or  supposed  to  be  so,  the  whole  party  sat  cross- 
legged  on  cushions,  with  sartorial  precision  ;  but  the 
mandarins,  being  bred  to  the  trade,  of  course  had 
the  advantage  of  us.  The  tables  were  low  in  pro- 
portion, and,  when  we  were  all  seated,  a  number  of 
attendants  placed  on  each  table,  holding  only  two 
guests,  a  large  tray  which  fitted  it,  and  contained  a 
complete  course,  of  which  four  in  all  were  served. 
The  first  consisted  of  a  rich  soup ;  the  second  of 
sixteen  round  and  narrow  dishes  containing  salted 
meats  and  other  relishes  ;  the  third  of  eight  basins 
of  birds'-nests,  sharks'-fins,  deer-sinews,  and  other 
viands  supposed  to  be  highly  nourishing ;  the  fourth 
of  twelve  bowls  of  stews  immersed  in  a  rich  soup. 
The  guests  helped  themselves  with  chopsticks,  small 
spoons  of  porcelain  fashioned  like  a  child's  pap- 
boat,  and  four-pronged  forks  of  silver,  small  and 
straight ;  and,  when  they  drank  to  each  other,  the 
warm  wine  was  poured  into  little  cups  by  the  attend- 
ants, who  at  the  same  time  bent  one  knee. 

"  At  the  other  end  of  the  hall  where  we  sat,  so  as 
to  be  viewed  by  each  person  from  his  place  down 
the  two  ranges  of  tables,  proceeded  the  stage  per- 
formances. The  music  was  infernal,  and  the  occa- 
sional crash  of  gongs  might  have  roused  Satan  and 
his  legions  from  their  sleep  on  the  sulphureous  lake. 
Some  pyrotechnic  monsters,  breathing  fire  and 
smoke,  were  among  the  dramatis  personse ;  but  by 
far  the  best  part  of  the  scene  was  the  tumbling — 
really  superior  in  its  kind.  The  strength  and  activ- 
ity of  one  man  were  particularly  eminent.  Leaping 
from  the  ground,  he  performed  a  somerset  in  the 
air  backward,  and,  after  the  first  effort,  continued 
to  revolve  in  this  manner  with  such  velocity,  that 


300  THE    CHINESE. 

his  head  and  feet,  the  extremities  of  revolution, 
were  scarcely  discernible." 

An  invitation  to  a  private  feast  is  conveyed  some 
days  before,  by  a  crimson-coloured  ticket,  on  which 
is  inscribed  the  time  appointed,  and  the  guest  is 
entreated  to  bestow  "  the  illumination  of  his  pres- 
ence." The  arrangement  of  the  tables  is  the  same 
as  at  the  imperial  entertainment,  but  they  are  of 
the  ordinary  height,  and  the  party  are  seated  on 
chairs,  two  at  each  table,  so  as  to  see  the  perform- 
ances on  the  stage.  The  materiel  of  the  dinner  is 
much  the  same  as  before  described ;  but,  previous 
to  its  commencement,  the  host,  standing  up,  drinks 
to  his  guests,  and  then  invites  them  to  begin  upon 
the  dishes  before  them.  At  a  certain  period  of  the 
entertainment,  towards  the  close,  the  whole  party 
rise  at  once,  and  drink  to  their  host.  Before  the 
dramatic  performance  begins,  one  of  the  actors 
presents  to  the  principal  guest  a  list  of  plays,  con- 
sisting perhaps  of  fifty  or  sixty  different  pieces ;  but 
they  have  these  so  M^eil  by  heart,  that  they  are 
ready  to  perform  any  one  he  may  select.  There 
is  no  scenery,  and  in  this  respect  a  great  deal  is 
left  to  the  imagination  of  the  spectators.  The 
dresses,  however,  are  extremely  splendid,  espe- 
cially in  heroical  pieces,  consisting  of  representa- 
tions of  different  portions  of  their  ancient  history. 
The  most  objectionable  part  is  the  terrible  din  kept 
up  by  the  instruments  of  music  and  the  gongs, 
during  those  portions  of  the  play  which  represent 
battles  and  tragical  scenes. 

The  females  of  the  household,  meanwhile,  who 
cannot  take  a  part  in  the  festivities  of  the  table, 
look  on  from  behind  a  trellis-work  at  one  of  the 
sides  of  the  stage,  with  such  of  their  friends  of  the 
same  sex  as  may  be  invited  on  the  occasion.  A 
particular  description  of  the  Chinese  drama  will  be 
given  in  its  proper  place  ;  but  we  may  observe 
here,  that  dancing  is  a  thing   almost  entirely  uii- 


DINNERS.  301 

known  to  them,  either  on  or  off  the  stage.  On  one 
occasion,  indeed,  in  the  interval  or  space  between 
the  ranges  of  tables,  we  saw  two  children,  showily 
dressed,  go  through  a  species  of  minuet,  consisting 
of  a  regular  figure  to  slow  time,  accompanied  by 
a  motion  of  the  arms  and  head  not  ungraceful  in 
effect. 

A  formal  dinner,  which  begins  about  six  o'clock 
in  the  evening,  is  generally  protracted  to  a  great 
length,  the  succession  of  dishes,  or  rather  bowls, 
which  follow  each  other  appearing  sometimes  to  be 
interminable.  So  little,  however,  is  eaten  of  each, 
that  the  guests  often  continue  tasting  the  contents 
of  one  after  another  until  the  very  end.  There 
seems  to  be  little  regularity  in  the  timing  of  the 
different  viands,  but  after  the  birds'-nest-soup  (which 
is,  in  fact,  a  strong  chicken-broth,  in  which  that 
substance  is  introduced  in  long  strips,  after  the 
manner  of  vermicelli),  the  peculiar  dehcacies  which 
have  already  been  mentioned,  together  with  mut- 
ton, fish,  game,  and  poultry,  follow  indiscriminately. 
The  signal  of  the  repast  approaching  its  termina- 
tion is  the  appearance  of  a  bowl  of  rice  for  each 
person,  and  this  is  followed  soon  after  by  tea,  in 
lieu  of  the  wine.  The  whole  is  crowned  by  a 
course  of  fruits  and  sweetmeats,  very  much  in  the 
manner  of  our  dessert. 

The  greater  portion  of  cups,  bowls,  and  saucers 
(for  they  have  no  flat  plates  of  their  own),  which 
constitute  the  dinner  service,  consist  of  fine  por- 
celain ;  but  occasionally  a  few  particular  meats  are 
served  in  silver  or  tutenague  covers,  under  which 
is  a  spirit-lamp  to  keep  them  hot.  The  wine-cups, 
too,  are  sometimes  of  silver  gilt,  and  of  rather  ele- 
gant vase-like  shapes.  The  extreme  smallness  of 
these  cups,  joined  to  the  weakness  of  the  wine, 
which  is  always  drunk  warm,  enables  them  to  take 
a  great  number  witlfbut  being  in  the  least  affected, 
or  at  all  exceeding  the  bounds  of  sobriety.     On 

Vol.  L— C  c 


302  THE  CHINESE. 

some  occasions  of  peculiar  ceremony,  the  feast  is 
closed  by  a  great  cup  scooped  from  the  horn  of 
the  rhinoceros,  which  animal  is  said  to  exist  in  the 
forests  of  Yunnan  and  Kuang-sy.  We  find  in  the 
works  of  Arabian  writers  that  the  same  substance 
has  often  been  used  for  the  drinking-cups  of  Asiatic 
potentates,  being  supposed  to  sweat  on  the  ap- 
proach of  poison,  and  therefore  to  be  a  safeguard 
against  it.  When  the  Mongols  conquered  the  em- 
pire they  probably  introduced  its  use  into  China. 

The  following  description  of  a  Chinese  dinner, 
from  the  pen  of  our  friend  Captain  Laplace,  of  the 
French  navy,  although  rather  a  long  extract,  is 
given  with  so  much  of  the  characteristic  vivacity 
of  his  countrymen,  and  so  well  conveys  the  first 
impression  of  a  scene  not  often  attended  by  Euro- 
peans, that  it  is  introduced  without  farther  apology. 
"  The  first  course  was  laid  out  in  a  great  number 
of  saucei*s  of  painted  porcelain,  and  consisted  of 
various  relishes  in  a  cold  state,  as  salted  earth- 
worms, prepared  and  dried,  but  so  cut  up  that  I 
fortunately  did  not  know  what  they  were  until  I 
had  swallowed  them ;  salted  or  smoked  fish,  and 
ham,  both  of  them  cut  into  extremely  small  slices  ; 
besides  which,  there  w^as  what  they  called  Japan 
leather,  a  sort  of  darkish  skin,  hard  and  tough,  with 
a  strong  and  far  from  agreeable  taste,  which  seem- 
ed to  have  been  macerated  for  some  time  in  water. 
All  these  et  ca3teras,  including  among  the  number  a 
liquor  which  I  recognised  to  be  soy,  made  from  a 
Japan  bean,  and  long  since  adopted,  by  the  wine- 
drinkers  of  Europe  to  revive  their  faded  appetites 
or  tastes,  were  used  as  seasoning  to  a  great  num- 
ber of  stews  which  were  contained  in  bowls,  and 
succeeded  each  other  uninterruptedly.  All  the 
dishes  without  exception  swam  in  soup.  On  one 
side  figured  pigeons'-eggs,  cooked  in  gravy,  together 
with  ducks  and  fowls  cut  very  small,  and  immersed 
in  a  dark-coloured  sauce ;  on  the  otiicr,  little  balls 


DINNERS.  303 

made  of  sharks'-fins,  eggs  prepared  by  heat,  of 
which  both  the  smell  and  taste  seemed  to  us  equal- 
ly repulsive,  immense  grubs,  a  peculiar  kind  of  sea- 
lish,  crabs,  and  pounded  shrimps. 

"  Seated  at  the  right  of  our  excellent  Amphit- 
ryon,* I  was  the  object  of  his  whole  attention,  but 
nevertheless  found  myself  considerably  at  a  loss 
how  to  use  the  two  liltle  ivory  sticks,  tipped  with 
silver,  wtiich,  together  with  a  knife  that  had  a  long, 
narrow,  and  thin  blade,  formed  the  whole  of  my 
eating  apparatus.  I  had  great  difficulty  in  seizing 
my  prey  in  the  midst  of  those  several  bowls  filled 
with  grav)^ :  in  vain  I  tried  to  hold,  in  imitation  of 
my  host,  this  substitute  for  a  fork  between  the 
thumb  and  the  two  first  fingers  of  the  right  hand ; 
for  the  cursed  chop-sticks  slipped  aside  every  mo- 
ment, leaving  behind  them  tlie  unhappy  little  mor- 
sel which  I  coveted.  It  is  true  that  the  master  of 
the  house  came  to  the  reUef  of  my  inexperience 
(by  which  he  was  much  entertained)  with  his  two 
instruments,  the  extremities  of  which,  a  few  mo- 
ments before,  had  touched  a  mouth,  whence  age, 
and  the  use  of  snutf  and  tobacco,  had  cruelly  chased 
its  good  looks.  I  could  very  well  have  dispensed 
with  such  an  auxiliary,  for  my  stomach  had  already 
much  ado  to  support  the  various  ragouts,  each  one 
more  surprising  than  another,  which  I  had  been 
obliged,  nolens  volens,  to  taste  of.  However,  I  con- 
trived to  eat  with  tolerable  propriety  a  soup  pre- 
pared with  the  famous  birds'-nests, ,  in  which  the 
Chinese  are  such  epicures.  The  substance  thus 
served  up  is  reduced  into  very  thin  filaments,  trans- 
parent as  ising-glass,  and  resembling  vermicelli,  with 
little  or  no  taste. f    At  first  I  was  much  puzzled  to 

♦  To  some  of  jo\ir  readers  it  may  be  necessary  to  explain  that 
this  word  is  used  in  French  to  express  host,  from  the  following 
popular  verse  of  a  comedy  : — 

"  Levtritahle  Amphitryon  est  V Amphitryon  Oii  I'ou  dine." 

t  It  is  generally  accompanied  with  pigeons'-eggs,  boiled  hard, 
and  eaten  with  soy. 


304  THE    CHINESE. 

find  out  how,  with  our  chop-sticks,  we  should  be 
able  to  taste  of  the  various  soups  which  composed 
the  greater  part  of  the  dinner,  and  had  already  call- 
ed to  mind  the  fable  of  the  fox  and  the  stork,  when 
our  two  Chinese  entertainers,  dipping  at  once  into 
the  bowls  with  the  httle  saucer  placed  at  the  side 
of  each  guest,  showed  us  how  to  get  rid  of  the 
difficulty."  We  confess  we  were  never  witness  to 
this  slovenly  manoeuvre,  as  the  Chinese  tables  are 
generally  supplied  with  a  species  of  spoon,  of  sil- 
ver or  porcelain,  sufficiently  convenient  in  shape. 

"  To  the  younger  guests,  naturally  lively,  such  a 
crowd  of  novelties  presented  an  inexhaustible  fund 
of  pleasantly,  and,  though  unintelligible  to  the 
worthy  Hong  merchant  and  his  brother,  the  jokes 
seemed  to  delight  them  not  a  bit  the  less.  The 
wine  in  the  meanwhile  circulated  freely,  and  the 
toasts  followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession. 
This  liquor,  which-  to  my  taste  was  by  no  means 
agreeable,  is  always  taken  hot ;  and  in  this  state  it 
approaches  pretty  nearly  to  Madeira  in  colour,  as 
well  as  a  little  in  taste ;  but  it  is  not  easy  to  get 
tipsy  with  it,  for,  in  spite  of  the  necessity  of  fre- 
quently attending  to  the  invitations  of  my  host,  this 
wine  did  not  in  the  least  affect  my  head.  We  drank 
it  in  little  gilt  cups,  having  the  shape  of  an  antique 
vase,  with  two  handles  of  perfect  workmanship, 
and  kept  constantly  tilled  by  attendants  holding 
large  silver  vessels  like  coffee-pots.  The  Chinese 
mode  of  pledging  is  singular  enough,  but  has  at  the 
same  time  some  little  resemblance  to  the  English. 
The  person  who  wishes  to  do  this  courtesy  to  one 
or  more  guests  gives  them  notice  by  an  attendant ; 
then,  taking  the  full  cup  with  both  hands,  he  lifts  it 
to  the  level  of  his  mouth,  and,  after  making  a  comi- 
cal sign  with  his  head,  he  drinks  off  the  contents ; 
he  waits  until  the  other  party  has  done  the  same,  and 
finally  repeats  the  first  nod  of  the  head,  holding  the 
cup  downward  before  him,  to  show  it  is  quite  empty. 


DINNERS.  305 

"  After  all  these  good  things,  served  one  upon 
the  other,  of  which  it  gave  me  pleasure  to  see  the 
last,  succeeded  the  second  course,  Avhich  was  pre- 
ceded by  a  little  ceremony,  of  which  the  object 
seemed  to  me  to  be  a  trial  of  the  guests'  appetites. 
Upon  the  edges  of  four  bowls,  arranged  in  a  square, 
three  others  were  placed  filled  with  stews,  and 
surmounted  by  an  eighth,  which  thus  formed  the 
summit  of  a  pyramid ;  and  the  custom  is  to  touch 
none  of  these,  although  invited  by  the  host.  On 
the  refusal  of  the  party,  the  whole  disappeared,  and 
the  table  was  covered  with  articles  in  pastry  and 
sugar,  in  the  midst  of  which  was  a  salad  com- 
posed of  the  tender  shoots  of  the  bamboo,  and 
some  watery  preparations  that  exhaled  a  most  dis- 
agreeable odour. 

"  Up  to  this  point,  the  relishes,  of  which  I  first 
spoke,  had  been  the  sole  accompaniments  of  all  the 
successive  ragouts  ;  they  still  served  to  season  the 
bowls  of  plain  rice,  which  the  attendants  now*  for 
the  first  time  placed  before  each  of  the  guests.  I 
regarded  with  an  air  of  considerable  embarrassment 
the  two  little  sticks,  with  which,  notwithstanding 
the  experience  acquired  since  the  commencement 
of  the  repast,  it  seemed  very  doubtful  whether  I 
should  be  able  to  eat  my  rice  grain  by  grain,  accord- 
ing to  the  belief  of  Europeans  regarding  the  Chi- 
nese custom.  I  therefore  waited  until  my  host 
should  begin,  to  follow  his  example,  foreseeing  that, 
on  this  new  occasion,  some  fresh  discovery  would 
serve  to  relieve  us  from  the  truly  ludicrous  embar- 
rassment which  we  all  displayed  :  in  a  word,  our 
two  Chinese,  cleverly  joining  the  ends  of  their  chop- 
sticks, plunged  them  into  the  bowls  of  rice,  held  up 
to  the  mouth,  which  was  opened  to  its  full  extent, 
and  thus  easily  shovelled  in  the  rice,  not  by  grains, 

*  It  must  be  remembered  that  this  was  a  formal   dinner 
Rice  forms  a  much  more  integral  part  of  an  every-day  meal. 
C  c2 


306  THE  CHINESE. 

but  by  handfuls.  Thus  instructed,  I  might  have 
followed  their  example  ;  but  I  preferred  making  up 
with  the  other  delicacies  for  the  few  attractions 
which,  to  my  taste,  had  been  displayed  by  the  first 
course.  The  second  lasted  a  much  shorter  time  : 
the  attendants  cleared  away  every  thing.  Present- 
ly the  table  was  strewed  with  flowers,  which  vied 
with  each  other  in  brilliancy ;  pretty  baskets,  filled 
with  the  same,  were  mixed  with  plates  which  con- 
tained a  vast  variety  of  delicious  sweetmeats  as 
well  as  cakes,  of  which  the  forms  were  as  inge- 
nious as  they  were  varied.  This  display  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  nature  and  of  art  v/as  equally  agreeable 
to  the  eyes  and  the  tastes  of  the  guests :  by  the 
side  of  the  yellow  plantain  was  seen  the  litchi,  of 
which  the  strong,  rough,  and  bright  crimson  skin 
defends  a  stone  enveloped  in  a  whitish  pulp,  which 
for  its  fine  aromatic  taste  is  superior  to  most  of  the 
tropical  fruits.  Indigenous  to  the  provinces  which 
border  on  the  Chinese  Sea,  the  newly-gathered 
litchi  presents  to  the  inhabitants  a  wholesome  and 
delicious  food*  during  the  summer,  and  forms,  when 
dried,  an  excellent  provision  for  the  M^nter.  With 
these  fruits  of  the  warm  climates  were  mingled 
those  of  the  temperate  zone,  brought  at  some  ex- 
pense from  the  northern  provinces ;  as  walnuts, 
chestnuts  (small,  and  inferior  to  those  of  France), 
apples,  grapes,  and  Peking  pears,  which  last,  though 
their  lively  colour  and  pleasant  smell  attracted  the 
attention,  proved  to  be  tasteless^  and  even  retained 
all  the  harshness  of  wild  fruits.  The  conversation, 
frequently  interrupted  during  the  commencement  of 
the  repast,  in  order  to  do  honour  to  the  numerous 
pledges  of  our  host,  and  to  all  the  wonders  of  the 
Chinese  kitchen  assembled  before  us,  became  noAV 
general,  and  sufficiently  noisy.     My  neighbour  es- 

*  This  is  a  very  heating  fruit,  and  known  to  be  dangerous  if 
taken  in  large  quantities. 


ASIATIC    POLITENESS.  307 

pecially,  little  accustomed  to  such  lively  mirth,  was 
quite  enchanted,  and  displayed  his  satisfaction  by 
loud  laughs,  to  which  was  perpetually  joined  the 
sonorous  accompaniment  of  his  somewhat  over- 
loaded stomach.  According  to  the  received  usages 
of  Chinese  fashion,  I  ought  to  have  followed  this 
example,  in  testimony  of  a  more  than  satisfied  ap- 
petite, but  my  wish  to  gratify  our  excellent  Amphit- 
ryon would  not  carry  me  quite  so  far.  This  cus- 
tom, which  in  France  would  seem  more  than  extra- 
ordinary, was  however  nothing  new  to  myself,  for 
I  had  already  remarked  it  in  the  best  societies  at 
Manilla.  Need  I  then  to  be  surprised  on  finding  the 
Chinese  so  little  nice  in  their  convivial  habits,  when 
our  near  neighbours  the  Spaniards  have  not  yet 
cast  off  this  remnant  of  the  grossness  of  the  olden 
time  r' 

This  disagreeable  custom  would  seem  to  be  tol- 
erated all  over  Asia,  where  it  is  considered  as  much 
a  matter  of  course  as  coughing  or  sneezing.  The 
curious  part  of  the  history  is,  that  any  ideas  of  ci- 
vility or  politeness  should  be  attached  to  that  which 
in  England  or  France  would  be  so  ditferently  re- 
ceived. "  At  length,"  adds  our  author,  "  we  adjourn- 
ed to  the  next  room  to  take  tea, — the  indispensable 
commencement  and  close  of  all  visits  and  ceremo- 
nies among  the  Chinese.  According  to  custom, 
the  servants  presented  it  in  porcelain  cups,  each  of 
which  was  covered  with  a  saucer-like  top,  which 
confines  and  prevents  the  aroma  from  evaporating. 
The  boiling  water  had  been  poured  over  a  few  of 
the  leaves,  collected  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup ;  and 
the  infusion,  to  which  no  sugar  is  ever  added  in 
China,  exhaled  a  delicious  fragrant  odour,  of  which 
the  best  teas  carried  to  Europe  can  scarcely  give 
an  idea." 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  grape,  although  abundant, 
is  not  used  in  this  country  for  the  production  of 
wine,  which  is  fermented  from  rice  but  neverthe- 


^OS  THE  CHINESE. 

less  resembles  some  of  our  weaker  white  wines 
both  in  colour  and  flavour.  The  rice  is  soaked  in 
water,  with  some  other  ingredients,  for  a  consider- 
able number  of  days.  The  liquor  is  then  boiled, 
after  which  it  is  allowed  to  ferment,  and  subse- 
quently drawn  off  clear  from  the  bottom,  to  be  put 
up  in  earthen  jars,  not  unlike  the  amphorae  of  the 
ancients  still  remaining  to  us.  The  residue  is  used 
in  the  distillation  of  a  very  strong  spirit,  little  infe- 
rior in  strength  to  pure  alcohol,  which  they  some- 
times introduce  in  an  extremely  small  cup  at  the 
close  of  their  dinners.  When  good  it  resembles 
strong  whiskey,  both  in  its  colourless  appearance 
and  its  smoky  flavour.  The  Tartars  are  said  still 
to  preserve  a  remnant  of  their  pastoral  state,  in 
their  predilection  for  a  strong  liquor  which  is  distill- 
ed from  mutton.  One  of  the  soups,  too,  presented 
at  the  imperial  feast  conferred  on  the  last  British 
embassy  at  Tien-tsin,  was  said  to  be  composed  of 
mare's  milk  and  blood  ! 

The  Chinese  are  little  addicted  to  drinking  plain 
water,  which  in  a  considerable  portion  of  the  coun- 
try is  extremely  bad.  On  the  Peking  river,  several 
of  the  persons  in  the  embassies  suffered  severely 
from  its  use,  by  which  they  were  afflicted  with  dys- 
enteries and  other  unpleasant  symptoms.  It  was 
generally  of  a  milky  colour,  and  though  cleared  in 
some  measure  by  being  stirred  with  a  bamboo,  in 
the  cleft  of  which  a  piece  of  alum  had  been  stuck 
as  a  precipitate,  it  always  retained  a  portion  of  its 
noxious  qualities.  It  may  fairly  be  surmised,  that 
the  badness  of  the  water  occasioned  the  first  intro- 
duction, and  subsequently  the  universal  use,  of  tea 
as  an  article  of  drink.  Notwithstanding  their  gen- 
eral repugnance  to  eating  and  drinking  what  is  cold,, 
none  understand  better  than  the  Chinese  of  the 
North  the  use  of  ice  during  hot  weather.  Near  to 
Peking,  in  the  month  of  August,  and  when  the  ther- 
mometer stood  above  80^,  we  constantly  saw  peo- 


FOOD   AND    DRINK.  309 

pie  carrying  about  supplies  of  this  article  of  luxury. 
Two  large  lumps,  whose  solid  thickness  proved  the 
lowness  of  the  temperature  which  produced  them, 
were  suspended  in  shallow  baskets  at  opposite  ends 
of  a  pole,  carried  across  the  shoulders.  Every  vend- 
er of  fruit  at  a  stall  either  sold  it  in  lumps,  or  used 
it  in  cooling  his  goods  ;  and  the  embassy  was  liber- 
ally supplied  with  ice  for  cooling  wine.  The  mode  of 
preserving  it  through  the  summer  is  the  usual  one, 
of  depositing  the  ice  at  a  sufficient  depth  in  the 
ground,  surrounding  it  with  straw  or  other  non-con- 
ducting substance,  and  draining  off  the  wet. 

The  Chinese  cookery  has  a  much  nearer  resem- 
blance to  the  French  than  the  English,  in  the  gen- 
eral use  of  ragouts  and  made-dishes,  rather  than 
plain  articles  of  diet,  as  well  as  in  the  liberal  intro- 
duction of  vegetables  into  every  preparation  of 
meat.  The  expenses  of  the  wealthy,  as  might  be 
expected,  run  very  much  in  the  direction  of  sensual 
pleasures,  among  which  the  gastronomic  hold  a 
conspicuous  place.  Some  of  the  articles,  however, 
which  they  esteem  as  delicacies,  would  have  few 
attractions  for  a  European.  Among  others  the 
larvae  of  the  sphinx-moth,  as  w^ell  as  a  grub  which  is 
bred  in  the  sugarcane,  are  much  relished.  Their 
dishes  are  frequently  cooked  with  the  oil  extracted 
from  the  ricinus,  which  yields  the  castor-oil  of 
medicine ;  but,  as  it  is  used  by  them  in  the  fresh 
state,  and  with  some  peculiar  preparation,  it  has 
neither  the  strong  detergent  properties,  nor  the  de- 
testable taste,  by  which  this  oil  is  known  in  Europe. 

The  general  prevalence  of  Buddhism  among  the 
population  is  perhaps  one  of  the  reasons  that  beef 
is  scarcely  ever  used  by  them,  though  the  multi- 
tudes of  bullocks  killed  annually  for  the  use  of  the 
European  shipping  proves  that  their  religious  scru- 
ples cannot  be  very  strong.  It  must,  howevei-,  be 
observed,  that  some  absurd  prejudices  and  maxims, 
not  to  say  positive  laws,  have  always  existed  against 


310  THE  CHINESE. 

an  extended  consumption  of  flesh  food.  There  are, 
accordingly,  no  people  in  the  world  that  consume  so 
little  butcher's  meat,  or  so  much  fish  and  vegetables. 
The  rivers  and  coasts  of  this  country  are  profusely 
productive  of  fish,  and  the  people  exercise  the  great- 
est ingenuity  in  catching  them.  Carp  and  mullet 
were  observed  by  the  last  embassy  in  all  the  towns 
bordering  on  the  route  from  Peking.  It  would  be 
a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  extension  of  cultiva- 
tion had  rendered  game  scarce.  There  are  abun- 
dance of  wooded  liills  and  mountains  as  well  as 
lakes,  about  which  wild  fowl,  pheasants,  red-legged 
partridges,  and  snipes,  are  plentiful.  Wild  geese 
are  seen  on  the  Canton  river  during  winter  in  large 
flocks,  as  well  as  teal  and  wild  ducks ;  and  the 
woodcock  is  sometimes,  though  rarely,  to  be  pro- 
cured. 

The  most  universal  vegetable  food  in  the  em- 
pire, next  to  rice,  is  the  pe-isac,  a  species  of  bras- 
sica,  which  derives  its  name  (white-cabbage)  from 
being  partially  blanched,  as  celery  is  with  us.  By 
our  embassies  it  was  frequently  used  as  a  salad, 
and  when  fresh  is  little  inferior  to  lettuce,  which  it 
greatly  resembles  as  a  plant.  The  most  celebrated 
place  for  its  production  is  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tien-tsin,  where  the  soil  is  a  loose,  sandy  alluvium. 
From  thence  it  is  conveyed,  either  in  the  fresh 
state  or  salted,  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  They 
are  said  to  preserve  it  fresh,  either  by  planting  in 
wet  sand,  or  by  burying  it  deep  in  the  ground ;  and 
it  is  a  popular  remark,  that  the  nine  gates  of  Pe» 
king  are  blocked  during  the  autumnal  season  with 
the  vehicles  bringing  in  the  pe-tsae.  Besides  this 
vegetable,  the  northern  provinces  consume  millet 
and  the  oil  of  sesamum  as  general  articles  of  diet. 
Many  of  the  cottagers  were  observed  to  possess 
the  means  of  independent  support  in  the  patches 
of  cultivation  which  surrounded  their  huts,  being 
supplied  in  many  cases  with  a  small  and  simple 


FOOD  AND  DRINK.  311 

mill,  worlved  by  an  ass,  for  the  expression  of  llic 
sesamum-oil.  The  vegetable  oils  which  are  used 
to  the  southward  are  obtained  from  the  Camellia 
cleifera^  and  the  Arachis  hypogcBo,  as  well  as  the 
Ricinus. 

As  the  embassies  approached  the  south,  the  most 
common  vegetables  in  use  appeared  to  be  the  So- 
lamim  melongeiia,  several  species  of  gourds  and 
cucumbers,  the  sweet  potato,  and  one  or  tw^o  spe- 
cies of  kidney-bean,  of  which  in  some  cases  they 
boil  the  young  plants.  Peas,  too,  which  were- in- 
troduced by  the  Dutch  factory  for  their  own  use, 
appear  sometimes  at  Chinese  dinners  in  stews, 
being  generally  eaten  in  the  pod,  while  this  is 
young  and  tender.  Near  ]Macao  the  potato  has 
become  very  common,  but  it  does  not  spread  so 
nipidly  as  might  have  been  expected;  for,  after 
twenty  years  since  its  first  introduction,  this  vege- 
table is  far  from  being  either  plentiful  or  cheap  at 
Canton,  only  eighty  miles  distant  from  the  former 
place.  Nothing,  indeed,  will  ever  supersede  rice 
as  the  staple  article  of  diet  among  the  Chinese 
populace,  whose  predilection  for  it  may  be  gath- 
ered from  what  Mr.  Gutzlaif  says  in  his  journal : 
"  Rice  being  very  cheap  in  Siam,  every  (Chinese) 
sailor  had  provided  a  bag  or  two  as  a  present  to 
his. family.  In  fact,  the  chief  thing  they  wish  and 
work  for  is  rice :  their  domestic  accounts  are  en- 
tirely regulated  by  the  quantity  of  rice  consumed ; 
their  meals  according  to  the  number  of  the  bowls 
of  it  boiled ;  and  their  exertions  according  to  the 
quantity  wanted.  Every  substitute  for  this  favour- 
ite food  is  considered  meager,  and  indicative  of  the 
greatest  wretchedness.  When  they  cannot  obtain 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  satisfy  their  appetites,  they 
supply  the  deficiency  with  an  equal  weight  of 
water.*     Inquiring  whether  the  western  barbarians 

*  jNIakiug  a  sort  of  trniel  of  the  rice. 


312  THE    CHINESE. 

eat  rice,  and  finding  me  slow  to  give  them  an  an- 
swer, they  exclaimed,  '  Oh !  the  steril  regions  of 
barbarians,  which  produce  not  the  necessaries  of 
life.  Strange  that  the  inhabitants  have  not  long 
ago  died  of  hunger  !'  I  endeavoured  to  show  them 
that  we  had  substitutes  for  rice  which  were  equal, 
if  not  superior  to  it ;  but  all  to  no  purpose ;  and 
they  still  maintained  that  it  is  rice  only  which  can 
properly  sustain  the  life  of  a  human  being." 

If  the  rich  should  appear  to  be  fantastic  in  the 
selection  of  their  diet,  the  poor  are  no  less  indis- 
criminate in  the  supply  of  theirs.  They  will,  in 
fact,  eat  nearly  every  thing  that  comes  in  their 
way;  and,  with  one  half  of  the  prejudices  of  the 
Hindoos,  a  large  portion  of  the  Chinese  popula- 
tion would  perish  with  hunger.  They  make  no 
difficulty  whatever  of  dogs,  cats,  and  even  rats; 
and  indeed  the  first  of  these  are  enumerated  as 
a  regular  article  of  food  in  one  of  their  ancient 
books.  Among  the  rich  themselves,  a  wild  cat, 
previously  prepared  by  feeding,  is  reckoned  a  deli- 
cacy. Chinese  dogs  are  said  to  have  a  particular 
aversion  for  butchers,  in  consequence,  no  doubt, 
of  the  violation  of  those  personal  exemptions  and 
privileges  which  the  canine  race  are  allowed  to 
enjoy  almost  everywhere  else. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  economical  habits 
of  the  people,  that  great  save-all,  the  pig,  is  univer- 
sally reared  about  cottages,  and  its  flesh  is  by  far 
the  commonest  meat ;  the  maxim  is,  "  that  a  scholar 
does  not  quit  his  books,  nor  the  poor  man  his  pigs." 
If  it  be  true  that  the  frequent  use  of  pork  produces 
or  predisposes  to  leprosy  ("cm  id  animal  ohnoxi- 
um,''  says  Tacitus),  the  Chinese  would  go  far  to 
corroborate  the  truth  of  the  observation,  being  very 
subject  to  that,  as  well  as  other  cutaneous  aflfec- 
tions  ;  but  it  must  be  remarked,  at  the  same  time, 
that  their  foul-feeding  is  universal.  They  contrive 
to  rear  ducks  very  cheaply,  by  making  them  hunt 


FOOD  AND    DRINK.  313 

for  tlieir  own  food.  Large  quantities  of  the  eggs 
are  hatched  arliliciall} ,  and  the  ducks  brought  up 
by  thousands  in  pecuhar  boats,  where  iheir  lodging 
is  constructed  upon  broad  platforms,  extendii^g  far 
beyond  the  sides  of  the  boat.  In  this  manner  they 
are  conveyed  to  different  parts  of  the  rivers,  and 
turned  out  to  seek  their  food  upon  the  muddy  lianks 
and  -shoals.  So  well  disciplined  are  these  birds, 
that,  upon  a  given  signal,  they  follow  their  leaders 
with  great  regularity  up  the  inclined  boa'rd,  by 
which  they  return  to  their  habitation  on  the  close 
of  the  day's  feeding.  The  flesh  is  preserved  by 
the  bodies  of  the  ducks  being  split  open,  flattened, 
and  salted,  and  in  this  condition  exposed  to  the  dry 
northerly  winds  during  the  cold  months. 

The  consumption  of  salted  provisions  is  very  gen- 
eral, and  enables  the  government  to  draw  a  large 
revenue  from  the  gahdle  .which  it  levies  on  salt.  In 
consequence  of  the  immense  quantities  of  both  sea 
and  river  fish  which  are  daily  caught,  and  the  rap- 
idly putrescent  nature  of  that  species  of  provision, 
a  considerable  portion  is  cured  with  salt,  and  dried 
in  the  sun,  the  haut  gout  which  generally  accompa- 
nies it  being  rather  a  recommendation  to  the  taste 
of  the  Chinese.  Indeed,  it  is  one  of  their  most 
favourite  as  well  as  universal  articles  of  food ;  and 
they  even  overcame  their  prejudice,  or  indifference 
for  whatever  is  foreign,  on  the  occasion  of  salted  cod 
being  introduced  for  two  or  three  years  in  English 
ships ;  the  somewhat  decayed  condition  in  which 
it  reached  China  being  said  to  have  been  any  thing 
but  a  drawback.  This  species  of  cargo,  however, 
besides  its  disagreeable  nature,  and  the  injurious 
effect  which  it  might  have  on  more  delicate  articles 
of  shipment,  was  found  during  the  long  voyage  to 
breed  a  peculiar  insect,  which,  from  the  readiness 
with  which  it  bored  into  the  planks  and  timbers  of 
a  ship,  was  considered  as  dangerous,  and  accord- 
ingly the  import  was  greatly  discontinued. 

Vol.  I  — D  d 


314  THC    CHINESE. 

The  middling  and-poorer  classes  are  amply  accom- 
modated with  taverns  and  eating-houses,  where,  for 
a  very  small  sum,  a  hot  breakfast  or  dinner  may  be 
obtained  in  a  moment.  There  are  some  favourable 
specimens  of  these  at  Canton,  to  the  west  of  the 
factories,  built  up  to  the  height  of  two  stories,  and 
looking  down  the  river.  Such  is  the  jealous  inhos- 
pitality  of  the  local  government,  or  rather  of  the 
Hong  merchants  (who  have  charge  of  foreigners), 
that  the  owners  of  these  taverns  are  strictly  prohib- 
ited from  entertaining  Europeans;  and  they  have 
often  refused  all  offers  from  those  who  wished  to 
try  the  entertainment  which  they  afforded.  Such 
of  the  Chinese  of  respectability  as  have  not  their 
families  at  Canton,  frequently  resort  to  these  places 
in  the  evening,  where  they  are  provided  with  a 
comfortable  dinner ;  and  about  the  period  of  sunset 
the  whole  range  is  seen  gayly  lighted  up  through  its 
several  stories. 

The  public  houses  for  the  poorer  people  are  gen- 
erally open  sheds,  and  on  particular  festivals  these 
consist  of  a  temporary  structure  of  .matting,  with  a 
boarded  floor,  fitted  up  with  tables  and  benches,  and 
affording  the  means  of  gambling  and  drinking  to  the 
dissolute  portion  of  the  lowest  class.  To  the  credit 
of  the  Chinese,  as  a  nation,  it  must  be  stated  that  the 
proportion  which  this  description  of  persons  bears 
to  their  numerous  population  is  not  large.  The 
seafaring  inhabitants  of  Canton  and  Fokien  are 
perhaps  among  the  worst.  The  dangerous  profes- 
sion of  these  poor  people,  and  their  unsettled,  wan- 
dering habits,  tend  together  to  give  them  the  reck- 
less and  improvident  character  which  is  often  found 
attached  to  the  lower  grades  of  the  maritime  profes- 
sion in  other  countries.  Mr.  Gutzlaff  has  drawn  a 
very  revolting  picture  of  the  sailors  who  navigate 
the  Chinese  junks,  and  his  account  is  no  doubt  in 
the  main  quite  correct ;  but  it  must  be  observed,  in 
geheral,  of  the  gentlemen  of  his  profession,  both 


GAiSIBLING.  315 

Catholics  and  Protestants,  that,  accustomed  habitu- 
ally to  view  the  heathen  almost  exclusively  on 
the  side  of  their  spiritual  wants,  they  have  some- 
times drawn  rather  too  unfavourable  a  picture  of 
their  moral  character.  This,  however,  is  more  true 
Of  many  others  than  of  Mr.  Gutzlaff,  whose  candour 
has  occasionally  done  fair  justice  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Chinese  empire  on  the  score  of  their  good 
qualities. 

Though  the  lowest  orders  are  certainly  very 
prone  to  gambling,  this  is  a  vice  which  is  chiefly 
confined  to  them.  So  much  infamy  attaches  to  the 
practice  in  any  official  or  respectable  station,  and 
the  law  in  such  cases  is  so  severe,  that  the  better 
classes  are  happily  exempt  from  it.  This  seems 
to  be  a  point  on  which  the  liberty  of  the  subject 
may  in  any  community  (where  public  opinion  is 
ineffectual)  be  unceremoniously  violated,  very  much 
to  its  own  benefit,  since  true  liberty  consists  in  the 
power  to  do  every  thing  except  that  which  is  plainly 
opposed  to  the  general  good.  Those  laudable  in- 
ventions, dice,  cards,  and  dominoes,  are  all  of  them 
known  to  the  Chinese.  Their  cards  are  small 
pieces  of  pasteboard,  about  two  inches  long  and  an 
inch  broad,  with  black  and  red  characters  on  the 
faces.  The  idle  and  dissolute  sometimes  train 
quails  for  fighting,  as  the  Malays  do  cocks;  and 
even  a  species  of  cricket  is  occasionally  made  sub- 
servient to  this  cruel  purpose.*  The  Chinese  chess 
differs  in  board,  men,  and  moves,  from  that  of  India, 
and  cannot  in  any  way  be  identified  with  it,  except 
in  being  a  game  of  skill,  and  not  of  chance. 

They  have  two  contrivances  for  the  promotion 
of  drinking  at  their  merry-meetings.  One  of  these, 
called  tsoey-moey,  consists  in  each  person  guessing 
at  the  number  of  fingers  suddenly  held  up  bet*,  een 

♦  Two  of  them  are  placed  together  in  a  bowl,  and  irritated 
until  thev  tear  each  otlaer  to  pieces. 


316  THE    CHINESE. 

himself  and  his  adversary,  and  the  penalty  of  the 
loser  is  each  time  to  drink  a  cup  of  wine.  In  still, 
calm  evenings,  during  the  continuance  of  the  Chi- 
nese festivals,  the  yells  of  the  common  people  en- 
gaged at  this  tipsy  sport  are  sometimes  heard  to 
drown  all  other  noises.  It  is  precisely  the  same  as 
the  game  of  morra,  common  among  the  lower  orders 
in  Italy  at  the  present  day,  and  derived  by  them 
from  the  Roman  sport  of  "  micare  digitis^'"  of  which 
Cicero  remarked,  that  "  you  must  have  great  faith 
in  the  honesty  of  any  man  with  whom  you  played 
in  the  dark  ;" — "  multd  fide  opus  'est,  ut  cum  aliquo 
in  tenebris  micesy  The  other  festive  scheme  is  a 
handsome  bouquet  of  choice  flowers,  to  be  circulated 
quickly  from  hand  to  hand  among  the  guests,  while 
a  rapid  roll  is  kept  up  on  a  kettle-drum  in  an  ad- 
joining apartment.  Whoever  may  chance  to  hold 
the  flowers  at  the  instant  the  drum  stops,  pays  for- 
feit by  drinking  a  cup  of  wine.  It  may  be  easily 
imagined  that  this  rational  amusement  occasionally 
gives  rise  to  scenes  worthy  of  Sir  Toby  and  his 
associates  in  the  Twelfth  Night. 

In  lieu  of  theatrical  entertainments  at  their  din- 
ners, conjuring,  sleight  of  hand,  and  other  species 
of  dexterity,  are  sometimes  introduced  for  the  di- 
version of  the  assembly.  The  conjurer  has  always 
an  accomplice,  as  usual,  who  serves  to  distract  the 
attention  of  the  spectators.  One  of  their  best  exhi- 
bitions of  mere  dexterity  is  where  a  common  China 
saucer  is  spun  on  its  bottom  upon  the  end  of  a  rat- 
an  cane,  in  a  ver)''  surprising  manner.  The  rapid 
revolution  communicated  to  the  saucer  by  the  mo- 
tion of  the  performer's  wrist,  through  the  medium 
of  the  flexible  and  elastic  ratan,  keeps  it  whirling 
round  without  falling,  even  though  the  cane  is  oc- 
casi<;nally  held  nearly  horizontally,  and  sometimes 
passed  behind  the  back,  or  under  the  legs,  of  the  ex- 
hibiter.    It  may  be  observed  that  the  cup  is  seldom 


AMUSEMENTS.  317 

in  danger  of  falling,  except  for  the  moment  when 
the  eye  of  the  performer  may  be  taken  off  from  it. 

Among  their  out-of-door  amusements,  a  very  com- 
mon one  is  to  play  at  shuttlecock  with  the  feet, 
A  circle  of  some  half  a  dozen  keep  up  in  this  man- 
ner the  game  between  them  with  considerable  dex- 
terity, the  thick  soles  of  their  shoes  serving  them 
in  lieu  of  battledoors,  and  the  hand  being  allowed 
occasionally  to  assist.  In  kite-flying  the  Chinese 
certainly  excel  all  others,  both  in  the  various  con- 
struction of  their  kites,  and  the  heights  to  which 
they  make  them  rise.  They  have  a  very  thin,  as 
well  as  tough,  sort  of  paper,  made  of  refuse  silk, 
which,  in  combination  with  the  spUt  bamboo,  is  ex- 
cellently adapted  to  the  purpose.  The  kites  are 
made  to  assume  every  possible  shape  ;  and,  at  some 
distance,  it  is  impossible  occasionally  to  distinguish 
them  from  real  birds.  By  means  of  round  holes, 
supplied  with  vibrating  cords,  or  other  substances, 
they  contrive  to  produce  a  loud  hummnig  noise, 
something  like  that  of  a  top,  occasioned  by  the  rap- 
id passage  of  the  air  as  it  is  opposed  to  the  kite. 
At  a  particular  season  of  the  year,  not  only  boys, 
but  grown  men,  take  a  part  in  this  amusement,  and 
the  sport  sometimes  consists  in  trying  to  bring  each 
.other's  kites  down  by  dividing  the  strings. 

The  taste  of  the  Chinese  court  as  to  its  amuse- 
ments was  observed  by  the  several  embassies  to  be 
nearly  as  puerile  as  that  of  most  other  Asiatics. 
Farces,  tumbling,  and  fireworks  were  the  usual  di- 
versions with  which  the  emperor  and  his  guests 
were  regaled.  Two  of  the  sovereigns  of  this  Tar- 
tar dynasty,  K^ng-hy  and  Kien-loong,  maintained  the 
hardy  and  warlike  habits  of  the  Manchows  by  fre- 
quent hunting  expeditions  to  the  northward  of  the 
great  wall.  They  proceeded  at  the  head  of  a  little 
army,  by  which  the  game  was  enclosed  in  rings, 
and  thus  exposed  to  the  skill  of  the  emperor  and 
his  grandees.  We  find,  from  Pdre  Gerbillon's  ac- 
D  d  2 


318  THE  CHINESE. 

count  of  his  hunting  expedition  with  K^ng-hy,  that 
a  portion  of  the  train  consisted  of  falconers,  each 
of  whom  had  the  charge  of  a  single  bird.  The  per- 
sonal skill  and  prowess  of  K^ng-hy  appear  to  have 
been  considerable,  and  Ave  have  the  following  de- 
scription from  Gerbillon  of  the  death  of  a  large 
bear:  "This  animal  being  heavy  and  unable  to  run 
for  any  length  of  time,  he  stopped  on  the  declivity 
of  a  hill,  and  the  emperor,  standing  on  the  side  of 
the  opposite  hill,  shot  him  at  leisure,  and  with  the 
first  arrow  pierced  his  side  with  a  deadly  wound. 
Wlien  the  animal  found  himself  hurt,  he  gave  a 
dreadful  roar,  and  turned  his  head  with  fury  towards 
tht;  arrow  thnt  stuck  in  his  belly.  In  the  endeavour 
to  pull  it  out  he  broke  it  shcrt,  and  then,  running  a 
few  paces  farther,  he  stopped  exhausted.  The  em- 
peror, upon  this,  alighting  from  his  horse,  took  a 
half-pike,  used  by  the  Ma  ■.<^hows  agahist  tigers,  and, 
accompanied  b}^  four  of  tne  ablest  hunters  armed 
in  the  same  way,  he  approached  the  bear  and  killed 
him  outright  with  a  stab  of  his  half-pike." 

The  amusements  of  the  emperor's  court  on  the 
ice,  during  the  severe  winters  of  Peking,  are  thus 
given  by  Van  Braam,  who  was  one  of  the  Dutch 
mission  which  proceeded  frcm  Canton  soon  after 
Lord  Macartney's  embassy  : — "  The  emperor  made 
his  appearance  on  a  sort  of  sledge,  supported  by  the 
figures  of  four  dragons.  This  machine  was  moved 
about  by  several  mandarins,  some  dragging  before, 
and  others  pushing  behind.  The  four  principal  min- 
isters of  state  were  also  drawn  upon  the  ice  in  their 
sledges  by  inferior  mandarins.  Whcie  troops  of 
civil  and  mnlitary  officers  soon  appeared,  some  on 
sledges,  some  on  skates,  and  others  playing  at  foot- 
ball on  the  ice,  and  he  that  picked  up  the  ball  was 
rewarded  by  the  emperor.  The  ball  Avas  then  hung 
up  in  a  kind  of  arch,  and  several  manjdarins  shot  at 
it,  in  passing  on  skates,  with  their  bows  and  arrows, 
'i  iieir  skates  were  cut  off  short  ujider  the  heel,  and 


AMUSEMENTS.  319 

the  forepart  was  turned  up  at  right  angles."  These 
diversions  are  quite  in  the  spirit  of  the  Tartars,  whose 
original  habits  were  strongly  opposed  to  those  of 
the  quiet  and  effeminate  Chinese.  However  robust 
and  athletic  the  labouring  classes  in  the  southern 
provinces  of  the  empire,  those  who  are  not  support- 
ed by  bodily  exertion  are  in  general  extremely  fee- 
ble and  inactive.  Unlike  the  European  gentry, 
they  seldom  mount  on  a  horse,  if  not  of  the  milita- 
ry profession  ;  and  as  nobody  who  can  aiford  a 
chair  ever  moves  in  any  other  way,  the  benefits  of 
walking  are  also  lost  to  them.  Nothing  surprises 
one  of  these  Chinese  gentlemen  more  than  the  vol- 
untary exertion  which  Europeans  impose  on  them- 
selves for  the  sake  of  health  as  well  as  amusement. 
Much  of  this  inactivity  of  habit  must  of  course  be 
attributed  to  the  great  hoat  of  the  climate  during  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  year ;  and  they  would  be 
greater  sufferers  from  their  sedentary  lives,  were  it 
not  for  the  beneficial  custom  of  living  entirely  in, 
the  open  air,  with  warm  clothing,  during  even  the 
winter  months — that  is,  in  the  south  ;  for,  to  the 
northward,  the  extreme  cold  compels  them  to  re- 
sort to  their  stoves  and  flues,  with  closed  windows 
and  doors.  The  apartments  of  houses  at  Canton 
are  always  built  quite  open  to  tlie  south,  though  de- 
fended from  the  bleak  northerly  whids  by  windows., 
of  oyster-shells  or  glass. 


320  THE    CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS. 

Costume  of  better  Classes. — Absence  of  Arras  or  Weapons  from 
Dress. — Summer  and  Winter  Costume. — Paucity  of  Linen. — 
General  use  of  Furs  and  Skins. — Sudden  changes  of  Fashion 
not  known.— All  modes  prescribed  by  a  particular  Tribunal. — 
Singular  Honours  to  just  Magistrates.  — Shaving  and  Sham- 
pooing.— Female  Dress. — Chinese  Dwellings.— Description 
of  a  large  Mansion. — Tiling  of  Roofs. — Gardens. — Furniture 
— Taste  for  Antiques. — Travellmg  by  Land.— Government 
Post  not  available  to  Individuals. — Printed  Itineraries. — 
Travelling  by  Water. — Public  Passage-boats. — Passing  a 
Sluice  on  the  Canal. — Same  practice  six  hundred  years  ago.. 

"  When  dressed,  every  Chinese  of  any  station 
wears  by  his  side  a  variety  of  accoutrements,  which 
would  strike  a  stranger  as  being  of  a  warlike  char- 
acter, but  which  prove,  on  examination,  to  be  very 
peaceful  appendages.  A  worked  silk  sheath  encloses 
a  fan.  A  small  leather  bag,  not  unlike  a  cartouch 
box,  suspended  to  the  belt,  supplies  flint  and  steel 
for  lighting  the  pipe  ;  and  the  tobacco  is  carried  in  an 
embroidered  purse  or  pouch."  Dr.  Abel  thus  de- 
scribes the  appearance  of  the  first  well-dressed  Chi- 
nese whom  he  saw  on  reaching  the  shores  t)f  the 
Yellow  Sea.  Arms  are,  in  fact,  never  worn  on  the 
person  except  by  soldiers  on  parade :  and  even  the 
military  mandarins  do  not  wear  swords  on  ordinary 
occasions  of  ceremony.  The  common  people  are 
not  allowed  to  be  seen  with  arms  except  for  specific 
purposes  of  self-protection,  as  when  carrying  off 
their  property  from  a  fire,  or  as  a  defence  against 
river  pirates,  and  the  like. 

The  possession  oi firearms  is  altogether  forbidden 
by  the  jealous  government,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 


COSTUMES.  321 

following  extract  from  a  Peking  gazette  : — "  For  the 
people  to  have  firearms  in  their  possession  is  con- 
trary to  law,  and  orders  have  already  been  issued  to 
each  provincial  government  to  fix  a  period,  within 
which  all  matchlocks  belonging  to  individuals  should 

be  bought  up  at  a  valuation With  regard  to 

those  firearms  which  are  in  immediate  use  for  the 
safeguard  of  the  country,  the  said  governor  has  al- 
ready directed  the  proper  officers  to  carve  on  every 
matchlock  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  de- 
livered, and  to  preserve  a  general  register  of  the 
whole.  Let  the  governor  also  give  strict  charge  to 
make  diligent  search,  and  prevent  the  illicit  storing 
up  of  firearms  for  the  future ;  and  let  the  workers  in 
iron  be  rigidly  looked  after,  lest  they  clandestinely 
manufacture  ar>d  sell  them  ;  the  evil  may  thus  be  cut 
off  in  its  commencement.  Those  officers  who  have 
made  full  and  complete  musters  within  the  limited 
period,  the  governor  is  directed  to  notice  properly  as 
an  encouragement  to  others."  Those  Chinese  near 
Canton  who  employ  themselves  in  shooting  wild 
fowl  for  sale,  are  said  to  belong  mostly  to  the  militia 
of  the  province. 

The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  which  prevail 
throughout  the  country  at  opposite  seasons  of  the 
year,  joined  to  the  general  custom  of  living  very 
much  in  the  open  air,  are  the  causes  which  have 
probably  given  rise  to  the  broad  and  marked  distinc- 
tions that  exist  between  the  summer  and  the  winter 
dress  of  the  better  classes.  The  diflference  is  prin- 
cipally marked  by  the  cap.  The  summer  cap  is  a 
cone  of  finely  woven  filaments  of  bamboo,  or  a  sub- 
stance resembling  chip,  and  surmounted,  in  persons 
of  any  rank,  by  a  red,  blue,  white,  or  gilded  ball  at 
the  apex  or  point  of  the  cone.  From  the  insertion 
of  this  ornamental  ball  descends  all  around,  over 
the  cap,  a  fringe,  or  rather  bunch  of  crimson  silk  or 
of  red  horse  hair ;  in  front  of  the  cap  is  sometimes 
worn  a  single  large  pearl. 


322  THE    CHINESE. 

The  winter  cap,  instead  of  being  a  cone,  fits  closer 
to  the  shape  of  the  head,  and  has  a  brim,  turned 
sharply  up  all  round,  of  black  velvet,  or  fur,  and 
rising  a  little  higher  in  front  and  behind  than  at  the 
sides.  The  dome-shaped  top  is  surmounted  by  the 
same  ball  as  in  the  other  case,  denoting  the  rank  of 
the  wearer ;  and  from  the  point  of  insertion  descends 
a  bunch  of  fine  crimson  silk,  just  covering  the  dome. 
On  the  commencement  of  the  cold  or  hot  weather, 
the  first  person  in  each  province,  as  the  tsoong-to, 
or  viceroy,  assumes  his  winter  or  summer  cap  ;  the 
circimistance  is  noticed  in  the  official  gazette,  or 
court  circular,  and  this  is  the  signal  for  every  man 
under  his  government  to  make  the  same  change. 
In  the  embassy  of  1816,  the  imperial  legate,  who 
conducted  the  mission  down  to  Canton,  being  for 
the  time  superior  in  rank  to  the  viceroy,  in  this  man- 
ner put  on  his  winter  cap,  and  gave  the  example  to 
the  province  through  which  he  was  passing.  Within 
doors  they  usually  wear  in  cold  weather  a  small 
scuUcap,  either  plain  or  ornamented. 

The  summer  garment  of  the  better  classes  is  a 
long  loose  gown  of  light  silk,  gauze,  or  linen,  hang- 
ing free  at  ordinary  times,  but  on  occasions  of  dress 
gathered  in  round  the  middle  by  a  girdle  of  strong 
wrought  silk,  which  is  fastened  in  front  by  a  clasp 
of  agate,  or  of  the  jade,  which  the  Chinese  call  yw. 
In  an  oppressive  climate,  when  the  thermometer  is 
at  80°  or  90°,  there  is  much  ease  and  comfort  in  the 
loose  sleeves,  and  the  freedom  from  restraint  about 
the  neck,  by  which  this  dress*  is  distinguished ;  and 
the  tight  sleeves  and  huge  collars  of  Europeans  very 
naturally  make  them  objects  of  compassion,  if  not 
ridicule.  To  the  girdle  are  fastened  the  various  ar- 
ticles noticed  by  Dr.  Abel,  as  the  fan  case,  tobacco 
pouch,  flint  and  steel,  and  sometimes  a  sheath  with 
a  small  knife  and  pair  of  chopsticks.  They  are  very 
proud  of  displaying  a  watch,  which  is  inserted  in  an 
embroidered  silk  case  or  pouch. 


COSTUMES.  325 

The  winter  dress,  being  nearly  as  loose  as  that  of 
summer,  is  less  calculated  to  promote  warmth  and 
comfort  than  the  European  costume,  and  at  the  same 
time  more  unfavourable  to  bodily  activity  and  exer- 
tion. Over  a  longer  dress  of  silk  or  crape,  which 
reaches  to  the  ankles,  they  wear  a  large-sleeved 
spencer,  called  ma-kwa,  (or  riding  coat,)  which  does 
not  descend  below  the  hips.  This  is  often  entirely 
of  fur,  but  sometimes  of  silk  or  broadcloth,  lined 
with  skins.  The  neck,  which  in  summer  is  left 
quite  bare,  is  protected  in  winter  with  a  narrow 
collar  of  silk  or  fur;  their  loose  dresses  always  fold 
over  to  the  right  breast,  where  they  are  fastened 
from  top  to  bottom,  at  intervals  of  a  few  inches,  by 
gilt  or  crystal  buttons  (the  latter  in  mourning)  with 
loops. 

In  summer  the  nether  garment  is  loose,  and  not 
unlike  ancient  Dutch  breeches ;  but  in  winter  an  in- 
describable pair  of  tight  leggins  are  drawn  on  sepa- 
rately over  all,  and  fastened  up  to  the  sides  of  the 
person,  leaving  the  voluminous  article  of  dress  above 
mentioned  to  hang  out  behind  in  a  manner  that  is 
anything  but  pleasant.  Stockings  of  cotton  or  silk, 
woven  and  not  knit,  are  worn  by  all  who  can  afford 
them ;  and  in  winter,  persons  of  a  certain  rank 
wear  boots  of  cloth,  satin,  or  velvet,  with  the  usual 
thick  white  sole,  which  is  kept  clean  by  xohiting  in- 
stead of  blacking,  in  the  usual  style  of  contrariety  to 
our  customs.  The  thick  soles  of  their  boots  and 
shoes  in  all  probability  arose  from  the  circumstance 
of  their  not  possessing  such  a  substance  as  well- 
tanned  leather,  a  thinner  layer  of  which  is  sufficient 
to  exclude  the  wet.  The  shoes  made  for  Europeans 
at  Canton  are  perfectly  useless  in  rainy  weather, 
and  spoiled  on  the  very  first  wetting. 

The  Chinese  dresses  of  ceremony  are  exceedingly 

rich  and  handsome,  and  contrast  to  great  advantage 

with  the  queer,  unmeaning  capings  and  skirtings  of 

our  coats.     The  colour  of  the  spencer  is  usually 

Vol.  I.— E  e 


326  THE    CHINESE. 

dark  blue,  or  purple,  and  the  long  dress  beneath  is 
commonly  of  some  lighter  and  gayer  hue.  On  state 
occasions  this  last  is  very  splendidly  embroidered 
with  dragons  or  other  devices,  in  silk  and  gold^  and 
the  cost  amounts  frequently  to  large  sums.  At  the 
imperial  feast  of  which  the  last  embassy  partook  at 
Tein-tsin,  the  crowd  of  mandarins  in  full  dress,  sur- 
mounted by  their  crimson  caps  and  various-coloured 
balls,  certainly  produced  a  striking  effect. 

The  great  sin  of  the  Chinese  costume  is  the  paucity 
of  white  linen,  and  consequently  of  washing.  Even 
their  body  garment  is  sometimes  a  species  of  light 
silk,  but  capable  of  purification.  All  the  rest  of  their 
dress  being  of  silks  or  furs,  there  is  less  demand  for 
white  calico  or  linen,  in  proportion  to  the  numbers, 
than  in  any  other  country.  They  spread  neither 
sheets  upon  their  beds  nor  cloths  on  their  tables,  and 
the  want  of  personal  cleanliness  has  of  course  a  ten- 
dency to  promote  cutaneous  and  leprous  complaints. 
Their  substitute  for  soap  is  an  alkaline  lye,  derived 
from  a  mineral  substance,  and  rather  corrosive  in  its 
nature. 

The  skins  of  all  animals  are  converted  into  ap* 
parel  for  the  winter.  The  lower  orders  use  those  of 
sheep,  cats,  dogs,  goats,  and  squirrels.  Even  rat  and 
mouse  skins  are  sown  together  for  garments.  The 
expensive  fur  dresses  of  the  higher  orders  descend 
from  father  to  son,  and  form  sometimes  no  inconsid- 
erable portion  of  the  family  inheritance.  At  an  en- 
tertainment in  Canton,  where  the  party,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  country,  were  seated  in  an  open 
room  without  fires,  the  European  guests  began  to 
complain  of  cold;  upon  which  the  host  immediately 
accommodated  the  whole  number  of  ten  or  twelve 
with  handsome  wide-sleeved  spencers,  all  of  the 
most  costly  furs,  telling  them  at  the  same  time  that 
he  had  plenty  more  in  reserve.  They  have  one  singu- 
lar species  of  refinement  on  the  score  of  skins.  The 
young  lamb  in  utero,  after  a  certain  period  of  gesta- 


COSTUMES.  327 

tion,  IS  taken  out,  and  its  skin  prepared  with  the  fine 
silky  wool  upon  it  for  dresses,  which  of  course  re- 
quire, on  account  of  their  smsll  size,  a  great  number 
of  Iambs  to  be  thus  "  untimely  ripped,"  and  the  lux- 
ury is  therefore  an  expensive  one. 

The  Chinese,  perhaps,  may  be  said  to  possess  an 
advantage  in  the  absence  of  those  perpetual  and  fre- 
quently absurd  mutations  of  fashion  in  Europe,  which 
at  one  period  blow  out  the  same  individual  like  a 
balloon  whom  at  another  they  contract  to  a  mummy : 
and  which  are  frequently  ridiculed  and  followed  in 
excess  at  one  and  the  same  time.  They  are  not  at 
the  mercy  and  disposal,  in  matters  of  taste,  of  those 
who  make  their  clothes,  and  their  modes  generally 
last  as  long  as  their  garments.  The  human  shape 
and  dress  are  not  varied  with  the  infinite  mutations 
of  a  kaleidoscope;  and  that  peculiar,  though  indis- 
putable species  of  merit,  "  being  in  the  height  of  the 
fashion,"  the  honours  of  which  must  be  chiefly  shared 
with  the  tailor  and  the  milliner,  is  nearly  unknown 
to  them. 

The  only  setter  of  fashions  is  the  board  of  rites 
and  ceremonies  at  Peking,  and  to  depart  materially 
from  their  ordinances  would  be  considered  as  some- 
thing worse  than  mere  mauvais  ton.  It  is  their  busi- 
ness not  only  to  prescribe  the  forms  on  all  occasions 
of  worship,  or  of  ceremony,  but  the  costumes  which 
are  to  be  worn  must  be  in  strict  conformity  to  rule. 
The  dresses  of  all  ranks  and  orders,  and  of  both 
sexes,  about  the  imperial  palace,  are  specified,  as 
regards  cut,  colour,  and  material,  with  as  much  pre- 
cision as  in  any  court  of  Europe.  From  the  Tartar 
religion  of  the  Lamas,  the  rosary  of  108  beads  has 
become  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  dress  attached  to 
the  nine  grades  of  official  rank.  It  consists  of  a 
necklace  of  stones  and  coral  nearly  as  large  as  a 
pigeon's  egg,  descending  to  the  waist,  and  distin- 
guished by  various  beads  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  wearer.  There  is  a  small  rosary  of  only  eighteeij 


328  THE    CHINESE. 

beads  of  inferior  size,  with  which  the  bonzes  count 
their  prayers  and  ejaculations,  exactly  as  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  ritual.  The  laity  in  China  sometimes 
wear  this  at  the  waist,  perfumed  with  musk,  and  give 
it  the  name  of  Heang-choo,  "  fragrant  beads." 

The  various  appendages  worn  at  the  girdle,  as 
the  purse  or  pouch,  the  steel  and  flint  case  for 
lighting  the  pipe,  the  watch  case,  &c.,  are  gener- 
ally of  the  finest  silk  embroidery,  which  forms  one 
of  the  principal  accomplishments  of  the  Chinese 
ladies.  Indeed  all  the  handsome  crape  shawls  taken 
to  England,  some  of  which  cost  from  sixty  to  eighty 
dollars,  are  entirely  the  work  of  women,  many  of 
whom  earn  more  than  twenty  dollars  a  month  by 
their  labour.  A  Chinese  is  seldom  seen  without  his 
snuff  bottle,  which  is  of  oval  construction,  and  less 
than  two  inches  in  length,  the  stopper  having  a  small 
spoon  attached  similar  to  that  for  Cayenne  pepper, 
with  which  a  portion  of  snuff  is  laid  on  the  left  hand, 
at  the  lower  joint  of  the  thumb,  and  thus  lifted  to  the 
nose.  The  material  of  these  bottles  is  sometimes 
porcelain,  or  variegated  glass,  carved  with  consider- 
able skill  in  the  style  of  cameos  ;  or  rock  crystal, 
with  small  figures  or  writing  on  the  inside,  performed 
in  a  manner  which  it  is  not  easy  to  account  for. 

Among  the  presents  sent  to,  or,  in  the  language  of 
Peking  diplomacy,  con/errec?  mjdow  foreign  sovereigns, . 
is  the  embroidered  silli  purse,  one  of  which  the  old 
emperor  Kien-loong  took  from  his  side,  and  gave  to 
the  youth  who  officiated  as  page  to  Lord  Macartney. 
This,  however,  was  of  the  imperial  yellow  colour, 
with  the  five-clawed  dragon,  and  could  hardly  be 
worn  by  Chinese  subjects,  who  always  displayed  the 
most  profound  reverence  and  admiration  when  they 
saw  it,  and  knew  it  was  from  the  great  emperor's 
own  person.  The  ornament  which  has  sometimes, 
for  want  of  a  better  name,  been  called  a  sceptre,  is, 
in  fact,  an  emblem  of  amity  and  good  will,  of  a  shape 
less  bent  than  the  letter  S,  about  eighteen  inches  in 


HONOURS    TO    JUST    MAGISTRATES.  329 

length,  and  cut  from  the  jade  or  yu  stone.  It  is  called 
joo-ee,  "  as  you  wish,"  and  is  simply  exchanged  as  a 
costly  mark  of  friendship ;  but  that  it  had  a  religious 
origin  seems  indicated  by  the  sacred  flower  of  the 
lotus  {Nijmph(Ea  nelumho)  being  generally  carved  on 
the  superior  end. 

The  Chinese  have  some  singular  modes  of  demon- 
strating their  respect  and  regard  on  the  departure  of 
any  public  magistrate,  whose  government  has  been 
marked  by  moderation  and  justice.  A  deputation 
sometimes  waits  upon  him  with  a  habit  composed  of 
every  variety  of  colour,  "  a  coat  of  many  colours,"  as 
if  made  by  a  general  contribution  from  the  people. 
With  this  he  is  solemnly  invested,  and,  though  of 
course  the  garment  is  not  intended  to  be  worn,  it  is 
preserved  as  an  honourable  relic  in  the  family.  On 
quitting  the  district,  he  is  accompanied  by  the  crowds 
that  follow  his  chair,  or  kneel  by  the  wayside,  while 
at  intervals  on  the  road  are  placed  tables  of  pro- 
visions and  sticks  of  incense  burning.  These  honours 
were  shown  to  a  late  Fooyuen  of  Canton,  a  man  of 
a  most  eccentric  but  upright  character,  who,  unlike 
so  many  others  in  his  situation,  would  never  take 
anything  from  the  Hong  merchants  or  others  under 
his  authority.  He  seemed  to  have  a  supreme  in- 
difference for  human  grandeur,  and  at  length  retired 
by  his  own  choice  and  the  emperor's  permission  into 
private  life,  from  whence  it  is  said  he  became  a 
devotee  of  Budh.  On  his  quitting  Canton,  a  very 
singular  custom  was  observed,  in  conformity  with 
ancient  Chinese  usage  on  such  rare  occasions  ;  when 
he  had  accepted  the  various  demonstrations  of  hom- 
age and  respect  from  those  who  had  been  deputed 
by  the  people  to  wait  on  him,  he  proceeded  from  his 
residence  to  the  city  gates,  and,  being  there  arrived, 
his  boots  were  taken  off,  to  be  preserved  as  a  valued 
relic,  while  their  place  was  supplied  by  a  new^  pair. 
This  was  repeated  more  than  once  as  he  proceeded 
on  his  way,  the  boots  which  he  had  only  once  drawn 
Ek2 


330  THE    CHINESE. 

on  being  regarded  as  precious  memorials.  The  con- 
duct of  the  higher  magistrates  cannot  fail  to  be  influ- 
enced sometimes  by  the  ambition  of  earning  such 
popular  honours,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  in 
places  less  exposed  to  the  contagion  of  vice  and 
temptation  than  Canton,  there  are  good  magistrates 
in  China  as  well  as  elsewhere. 

But  to  return  to  costumes.  The  head  of  the  men, 
as  we  have  before  noticed,  is  invariably  shaven,  ex- 
cept at  the  top,  whence  the  tail  depends  in  conform- 
ity to  the  Tartar  custom ;  the  only  change  being  in 
mourning,  when  the  hair  is  allowed  to  grow.  The 
Chinese  having  so  little  beard,  the  principal  work  for 
the  razor  is  on  the  head,  and  consequently  no  person 
ever  shaves  himself.  The  great  number  of  barbers 
is  a  striking  feature  in  all  towns,  and  sufficiently  ex- 
plained by  the  prevailing  custom.  They  exercise  the 
additional  function  of  shampooing,  which,  with  the 
antecedent  shave,  occupies  altogether  a  considerable 
time.  Every  barber  carries  about  with  him,  slung 
from  a  stick  across  his  shoulder,  all  the  instruments 
of  his  vocation  in  a  compendious  form.  On  one  side 
hangs  a  stool,  under  which  are  drawers  containing 
his  instruments;  and  this  is  counterpoised  at  the 
other  end  by  a  small  charcoal-furnace  under  a  vessel 
of  water  which  it  serves  to  heat.  Their  razors  are 
extremely  clumsy  in  appearance,  but  very  keen  and 
efficient  in  use.  It  is  not  the  custom  for  the  men  to 
wear  mustaches  before  forty  years  of  age,  nor  beards 
before  sixty.  These  generally  grow  in  thin  tufts, 
and  it  is  only  in  a  few  individuals  that  they  assume  the 
bushy  appearance  observable  in  other  Asiatics. 

The  women  would  frequently  be  very  pretty,  were 
it  not  for  the  shocking  custom  of  daubing  their  faces 
with  white  and  red  paint,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
deformity  of  cramped  feet.  In  point  of  health,  how- 
ever, this  is  in  a  great  degree  made  up  by  the  total 
absence  of  tight  lacing,  and  of  all  ligatures  and  con- 
finements whatever  about  the  vital  parts.     The  con- 


COSTUMES.  331 

sequence  is  that  their  children  are  all  born  very- 
straight  limbed,  and  births  are  scarcely  ever  attended 
with  disaster.  Their  dress  is  extremely  modest  and 
becoming,  and,  in  the  higher  classes,  as  splendid  as 
the  most  exquisite  silks  and  embroidery  can  make  it ; 
for  the  Chinese  certainly  reserve  the  best  of  their 
silk  manufactures  for  themselves.  What  we  often 
choose  to  call  dress  they  would  regard  as  absolute 
nudity,  and  all  close  fitting  to  the  shape  as  only  dis- 
playing what  it  affects  to  conceal. 

Unmarried  women  wear  their  hair  hanging  down 
in  long  tresses,  and  the  putting  up  of  the  hair  is  one 
of  the  ceremonies  preparatory  to  marriage.  It  is 
twisted  up  towards  the  back  of  the  head,  ornamented 
with  flowers  or  jewels,  and  fastened  with  two  bod- 
kins stuck  in  crosswise.  They  sometimes  wear  an 
ornament  representing  the  foong  hoang,  or  Chinese 
phoenix,  composed  of  gold  and  jewels,  the  wings 
hovering,  and  the  beak  of  the  bird  hanging  over  the 
forehead,  on  an  elastic  spring.  After  a  certain  time 
of  life,  the  women  wear  a  silk  wrapper  round  the 
head,  in  lieu  of  any  other  dress.  The  eyebrows  of 
the  young  women  are  fashioned  until  they  represent 
a  fine  curved  line,  which  is  compared  to  the  new 
moon  when  only  a  day  or  two  old,  or  to  the  young 
leaflet  of  the  willow. 

Pink  and  green,  two  colours  often  worn  by  wo- 
men, are  confined  exclusively  to  them,  and  never 
seen  on  men.  The  ordinary  dress  is  a  large-sleeved 
robe  of  silk,  or  of  cotton  among  the  poorer  sort,  over 
a  longer  garment,  sometimes  of  a  pink  colour,  under 
which  are  loose  trousers  which  are  fastened  round 
the  ankle,  just  above  the  small  foot  and  tight  shoe. 
A  proverbial  expression  among  the  Chinese,  for  the 
concealment  of  defects,  is,  "  Long  robes  to  hide  large 
feet."  Notwithstanding  this,  the  Tartar  women  or 
their  lords,  have  had  the  good  sense  to  preserve  the 
ladies'  feet  of  the  natural  size.  In  other  respects, 
however,  they  dress  nearly  as  the  Chinese,  and  paint 
their  faces  white  and  red  in  the  same  style. 


332 


THE    CHINESE. 


Husbandman. 


The  ordinary  dress  of  men  anionor  rhe  Icibouring 
classes  is  extremely  well  suited  to  give  full  play  to 
the  body :  it  consists  in  summer  of  only  a  pair  of 
loose  cotton  trousers  tied  round  the  middle,  and  a 
shirt  or  smock,  equally  loose,  hanging  over  it.  In 
very  hot  w^eather  the  smock  is  thrown  off  altogether, 
and  only  the  trousers  retained.  They  defend  the 
head  from  the  sun  by  a  very  broad  umbrella- shaped 
hat  of  bamboo  slips  interwoven,  which  in  winter  is 
exchanged  for  a  felt  cap  ;  and  in  rainy  weather  they 
have  cloaks  of  a  species  of  flags  or  reeds,  from  which 
the  water  runs  as  from  a  penthouse.  A  large  por- 
tion of  the  peasantry  wear  no  shoes,  but  some  are 
furnished,  particularly  those  who  carry  heavy  bur- 
dens, with  sandals  of  straw  to  protect  the  feet. 

In  describing  the  dwellings  of  the  Chinese,  we  may 
observe  that,  in  their  ordinary  plan,  they  bear  a  curi- 
ous resemblance  to  the  remains  of  the  Roman  hab- 


DWELLINGS.  333 

itations  disinterred  from  the  scorise  and  ashes  of 
Pompeii.  They  consist  usually  of  a  ground  floor, 
divided  into  several  apartments  within  the  dead  wall 
that  fronts  the  street,  and  lighted  only  by  windows 
looking  into  the  internal  courtyard.  The  principal 
room  next  to  the  entrance  serves  to  receive  visiters 
as  well  as  for  eating ;  and  within  are  the  more  private 
apartments,  the  doorways  of  which  are  screened  by 
pendent  curtains  of  silk  or  cotton.  Near  Peking,  the 
embassies  found  most  of  the  apartments  furnished 
with  a  couch  or  bedplace  of  brickwork,  having  a  fur- 
nace below  to  warm  it  during  the  winter.  This  was 
usually  covered  with  a  felt  rug  or  mat,  which,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  warmth,  gave  perpetual  lodging 
to  swarms  of  vermin,  and  rendered  the  bedplaces 
quite  unavailable  to  the  English  travellers.  These 
flues,  however,  are  very  necessary  during  the  severe 
winters,  when  the  fires  in  the  better  houses  are  light- 
ed on  the  outside ;  but  in  poorer  ones  the  furnace  is 
within,  and  serves  the  double  purpose  of  cooking 
and  warmth,  the  whole  family  huddling  round  it. 

All  houses  of  consequence  are  entered  by  a  triple 
gatew^ay,  consisting  of  one  large  folding-door  in  the 
centre,  and  of  a  smaller  one  on  either  side.  These 
last  serve  for  ordinary  occasions,  while  the  first  is 
thrown  open  for  the  reception  of  distinguished 
guests.  Large  lanterns  of  a  cylindrical  shape  are 
hung  at  the  sides,  on  which  are  inscribed  the  name 
and  titles  of  the  inhabitant  of  the  mansion,  so  as  to 
be  read  either  by  day,  or  at  night  when  the  lanterns 
are  lighted.  Just  within  the  gates  is  the  covered  court, 
where  the  sedan  chairs  stand,  surrounded  by  red 
varnished  label  boards,  having  inscribed  in  gilt  char- 
acters the  full  titles  of  any  person  of  rank  and  con- 
sequence. We  cannot  better  describe  one  of  their 
larger  mansions  than  in  the  words  of  Sir  George 
Staunton:*     "This  palace  was  built  on  the  general 

*  Embassy,  vol.  ii.,  p.  139. 


334  THE    CHINESE. 

model  ofthe  dwellings  of  great  mandarins.  The  whole 
enclosure  was  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  high  brick  wall,  the  outside  of  which 
exhibited  a  plain  blank  surface,  except  near  one  of 
its  angles,  where  the  gateway  opened  into  a  narrow 
street,  little  promising  the  handsome  structures  with- 
inside.  The  wall  in  its  whole  length  supported  the 
upper  ridge  of  roof,  whose  lower  edges,  resting  upon 
an  interior  wall  parallel  to  the  other,  formed  a  long 
range  of  buildings  divided  into  apartments  for  ser- 
vants and  officers.  The  rest  of  the  enclosure  was 
subdivided  into  several  quadrangular  courts  of  differ- 
ent sizes.  In  each  quadrangle  were  buildings  upon 
platforms  of  granite,  and  surrounded  by  a  colonnade. 
The  columns  were  of  wood,  nearly  sixteen  feet  in 
height,  and  as  many  inches  in  diameter  at  the  lower 
end,  decreasing  to  the  upper  extremity  about  one 
sixth.  They  had  neither  capital  nor  base,  according 
to  the  strict  meaning  of  those  terms  in  the  orders 
of  Grecian  architecture,  nor  any  divisions  of  the 
space  called  the  entablature,  being  plain  to  the  very 
top,  which  supports  the  cornice  ;  and  were  without 
any  swell  at  the  lower  end,  where  they  were  let 
into  hollows  cut  into  stones  for  their  reception, 
which  formed  a  circular  ring  round  each,  somewhat 
in  the  Tuscan  manner.  Between  the  columns,  for 
about  one  fourth  of  the  length  of  the  shaft  from 
the  cornice  downward,  was  carved  and  ornamented 
woodwork,  which  might  be  termed  the  entablature, 
and  was  of  a  different  colour  from  the  columns, 
which  were  universally  red.  This  colonnade  served 
to  support  that  part  of  the  roof  which  projected  be- 
yond the  wall  plate  in  a  curve,  turning  up  at  the  an- 
gles. By  means  of  such  roofed  colonnades  every 
part  of  those  extensive  buildings  might  be  visited 
under  cover.  The  number  of  pillars  throughout  the 
whole  was  not  fewer  than  six  hundred. 
^*  Annexed  to  the  principal  apartment,  now  des- 


DWELLINGS.  335 

tilled  for  the  ambassador,  was  an  elevated  building, 
intended  for  the  purposes  of  a  private  theatre  and 
concertroom,  with  retiring  apartments  behind  and 
a  gallery  for  spectators  round  it.  None  of  the 
buildings  were  above  one  story,  except  that  which 
comprised  the  ladies'  apartment  during  the  residence 
of  the  owner :  it  was  situated  in  the  inmost  quad- 
rangle. The  front  consisted  of  one  long  and  lofty 
hall,  with  windows  of  Corea  paper,  through  which 
no  object  could  be  distinguished  on  the  other  side. 
On  the  back  of  this  hall  was  carried  a  gallery,  at 
the  height  of  about  ten  feet,  which  led  to  several 
small  rooms,  lighted  only  from  the  hall.  Those  inner 
windows  were  of  silk  gauze,  stretched  on  frames  of 
wood,  and  worked  with  the  needle  in  flowers,  fruity 
birds,  and  insects,  and  others  painted  in  water  col- 
ours. This  apartment  was  fitted  in  a  neater  style, 
though  upon  a  smaller  scale,  than  most  of  the  others. 
To  this  part  of  the  building  was  attached  a  small 
back  court  with  offices;  the  whole  calculated  for 
privacy. 

"  In  one  of  the  outer  quadrangles  was  a  piece  of 
water,  in  the  midst  of  which  a  stone  room  was 
built,  exactly  in  the  shape  of  one  of  the  covered 
barges  of  the  country.  In  others  of  the  quadran- 
gles were  planted  trees,  and,  in  the  largest,  a  huge 
heap  of  rocks  rudely  piled,  but  firmly  fixed  upon  each 
other,  and  at  one  end  was  a  spot  laid  out  for  a  gar- 
den in  miniature ;  but  it  did  not  appear  to  have  been 
finished." 

In  the  best  Chinese  mansions  there  are  seldom 
any  stairs  beyond  the  few  stone  steps  by  which  they 
are  raised  above  the  general  level  of  the  ground. 
The  stonework  of  the  foundation  is  extremely  solid 
and  handsome,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Canton 
it  is  always  of  granite.  The  walls  are  of  blue  brick, 
frequently  with  an  artificial  facing  or  pointing,  by 
which  strangers  are  apt  to  be  deceived  as  to  the  fine- 
ness of  their  brickwork.     They  work  in  stucco  with 


336  THE    CHINESE. 

great  skill,  representing  animals,  flowers,  and  fruits, 
which  are  sometimes  coloured  to  imitate  nature,  and 
the  cheapness  of  this  ornament  makes  it  very  com- 
mon. The  partition  walls  of  the  inner  courts  are 
frequently  broken  into  compartments,  which  are 
filled  with  an  openwork  of  green  varnished  tile,  or 
coarse  porcelain.  The  mode  in  which  they  tile  their 
roofs  is  evidently  derived  from  the  use  of  split  bam- 
boos for  the  same  purpose,  as  it  is  practised  to  this 
day  by  the  Malays,  and  described  by  Marsden.  The 
transverse  section  of  these  titles  being-  something 
of  a  semicircle,  they  are  laid  down  the  roof  with 
their  concave  sides  uppermost  to  serve  as  gutters, 
the  upturned  edges  of  every  range  being  contiguous. 
But,  as  these  would  admit  the  rain  at  the  lines  of 
contact,  other  tiles  are  laid  in  a  contrary  position 
over  them,  and  the  whole  secured  in  their  places  by 
mortar. 

In  towns,  where  space  is  of  consequence,  the 
houses  and  shops  of  the  greater  number  of  the  in- 
habitants have  a  story  above  the  ground  floor,  and 
on  the  roof  is  often  erected  a  wooden  stage  or  plat- 
form for  drying  goods,  or  for  taking  the  air  in  hot 
evenings.  This  custom  contributes  to  make  their 
houses  very  liable  to  catch  and  to  spread  fires  during 
a  conflagration.  Nothing  surprises  the  Chinese 
more  than  the  representations  of  descriptions  of  the 
five  and  six-storied  houses  of  European  cities;  and 
the  emperor  is  said  to  have  inquired  if  it  was  the 
smallness  of  the  territory  that  compelled  the  in- 
habitants to  build  their  dwellings  so  near  the  clouds. 
They  have  the  most  absurd  superstition  in  regard  to 
the  ill  luck  that  attends  the  elevation  of  dwellings 
above  a  certain  height ;  and  the  erection  of  a  gable 
end  (which  they  denominate  by  their  character  for 
metal,  approaching  to  the  same  shape)  will  fill  a 
whole  family  with  consternation,  until  certain  cere- 
monies have  been  performed  to  dispel  the  "  evil  in- 
fluence."   These  remedies  are  about  as  well  founded 


DWELLINGS.  337 

in  common  sense  as  the  evils  which  they  are  em- 
ployed to  remove,  and  resemble  exactly  the  charms 
and  exorcisms  used  in  our  olden  time  against  witches, 
ghosts,  and  devils.  In  the  same  way  that  a  horse- 
shoe, with  us,  nailed  against  the  door  was  an  infalli- 
ble protection  from  a  witch,  the  figure  of  a  dragon, 
•with  its  mouth  wide  open,  opposite  to  the  unlucky 
roof,  swallows  up  all  the  ngo-kt/,  '•  the  bad  air,  or  in- 
fluence." The  Chinese,  however,  never  seem  to 
have  reached  that  height  of  judicial  acumen  by 
which,  in  former  times  with  us,  many  a  helpless  old 
woman  was  thrown  into  tlie  water,  to  be  drowned 
if  she  sank,  or  be  burned  if  she  floated. 

The  magnificence  of  Chinese  mansions  is  esti- 
mated in  some  measure  by  the  ground  which  they 
cover,  and  by  the  number  and  size  of  the  courts  and 
buildings.  The  real  space  is  often  eked  out  by  wind- 
ing and  complicated  passages  or  galleries,  decorated 
with  carving  and  trelliswork  in  very  good  taste. 
The  walls  are  often  paved  with  figured  tiles.  Large 
tanks  or  ponds,  with  the  nelumbmm,  or  sacred  lo- 
tus, are  essential  to  every  country  house,  and  these 
pools  are  generally  filled  with  quantities  of  the  golden 
carp,  and  other  fish.  Masses  of  artificial  rock  either 
rise  out  of  the  water,  or  are  strewn  about  the  ground 
in  an  affected  imitation  of  nature,  and  on  these  are 
often  planted  their  stunted  trees.  Sir  William  Cham- 
bers's description  of  Chinese  gardening  is  a  mere 
prose  work  of  imagination,  without  a  shadow  of 
foundation  in  reahty.  Their  taste  is  indeed  ex- 
tremely defective  and  vicious  on  this  particular 
point,  and,  as  an  improvement  of  nature,  ranks 
much  on  a  par  with  the  cramping  of  their  women's 
feet.  The  only  exception  exists  in  the  gardens,  or 
rather  parks,  of  the  emperor  at  Yuen-ming-yuen, 
which  Mr.  Barrow  describes  as  grand  both  in  plan 
and  extent ;  but  for  a  subject  to  imitate  these  would 
be  almost  criminal,  even  if  it  were  possible. 

The  apartments  of  the  Chinese  are  by  no  means 
Vol.  L— Fr 


338  THE    CHINESE. 

SO  full  of  furniture  as  ours  in  England,  and  in  thi§ 
respect  they  have  arrived  at  a  point  in  luxury  far 
short  of  our  own.  Perhaps,  however,  they  are  the 
only  people  of  Asia  who  use  chairs :  these  resemble 
the  solid  and  lumbering  pieces  of  furniture  which 
were  in  fashion  more  than  a  century  ago,  as  described 
by  Cowper : — 

"  But  restless  was  the  chair ;  the  back  erect 
Distress'd  the  weary  loins,  that  felt  no  ease  ; 
The  slippery  seat  betray'd  the  sliding  part 
That  press'd  it,  and  the  ieet  hung  danghng  down." 

Cushions,  with  hangings  for  the  back,  are  sometimear 
used  of  silks,  or  English  woollens,  generally  of  a 
scarlet  colour  embroidered  in  silk  patterns  by  the 
Chinese  women.  Near  the  chairs  are  commonly 
placed  those  articles  of  furniture  which  the  Portu- 
guese call  cuspadores,  or  spitting  pots,  rendered 
necessary  by  the  universal  habit  of  smoking.  The 
disagreeable  noise  that  attends  the  clearing  the 
throat  and  fauces  of  the  poison  inhaled  by  this  bes- 
tial practise,  is  perpetual  among  the  Chinese,  and 
makes  one  enter  feelingly  into  the  complaints  which 
have  proceeded  from  several  visiters  of  the  United 
States,  in  regard  to  similar  habits  among  our  trans- 
atlantic brethren. 

Among  the  principal  ornaments  are  the  varied 
lanterns  of  silk,  horn,  and  other  materials,  which 
are  suspended  from  the  roofs,  adorned  with  crimson 
tassels,  but  which  for  purposes  of  illumination  are 
so  greatly  behind  our  lamps,  and  produce  more 
smoke  than  light.  At  a  Chinese  feast,  one  is  al- 
ways reminded  of  the  lighting  of  a  Roman  enter- 
tainment : — 

"  Sordidum  flammse  trepidant  rotantes 

Vertice  fumum." 

The  great  variety,  and,  in  the  eyes  of  a  Chinese, 
the  beauty  of  the  written  character,  occasions  its 
being  adopted  as  an  ornament  on  almost  all  occa- 


FURNITURE.  339 

sions.  Calligraphy  (or  fine  handwriting)  is  much 
studied  among  them,  and  the  autographs  of  a  friend 
or  patron,  consisting  of  moral  sentences,  poetical 
couplets,  or  quotations  from  the  sacred  books,  are 
kept  as  memorials,  or  displayed  as  ornaments  in 
their  apartments.  They  are  generally  inscribed 
largely  upon  labels  of  white  satin,  or  fine  coloured 
paper,  and  almost  always  inpavrs^  constituting  those 
parallelisms  which  we  shall  have  to  notice  under  the 
head  of  literature  and  poetry. 

In  the  forms  of  their  furniture  they  often  affect  a 
departure  from  straight  and  uniform  lines,  and  adopt 
what  might  be  called  a  regular  confusion,  as  in  the 
divisions  and  shelves  of  a  bookcase,  or  the  compart- 
ments of  a  screen.  Even  in  their  doorways,  instead 
of  a  regular  right-angled  aperture,  one  often  sees  a 
complete  circle,  or  the  shape  of  a  leaf,  or  of  a  jar. 
This,  however,  is  only  when  there  are  no  doors  re- 
quired to  be  shut,  their  absence  being  often  supplied 
by  hanging-screens  of  silk  and  cloth,  or  bamboo 
blinds  like  those  used  in  India.  Their  beds  are 
generally  very  simple,  with  curtains  of  silk  or  cot- 
ton in  the  winter,  and  a  fine  moscheto  net  during  the 
hot  months,  when  they  lie  on  a  mat  spread  upon  the 
hard  bottom  of  the  bed.  Two  or  three  boards,  with 
a  couple  of  narrow  benches  or  forms  on  which  to 
lay  them,  together  with  a  mat,  and  three  or  four 
bamboo  sticks,  to  stretch  the  moscheto  curtains  of 
coarse  hempen  cloth,  constitute  the  bed  of  an  ordi- 
nary Chinese. 

It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  in  the  original 
country  of  porcelain,  a  very  usual  ornament  of  dwel- 
lings consists  in  vases  and  jars  of  that  material,  of 
which  the  antiquity  is  valued  above  every  other 
quality.  This  taste  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of 
factitious  antiques,  not  only  in  porcelain,  but  in 
bronze,  and  other  substances — points  on  which 
strangers  are  often  very  egregiously  taken  in  at 
Canton.     The   shapes  of  their  tripods   and  othep 


340  THE    CHINESE. 

ancient  vessels,  real  or  imitated,  are  often  fantas- 
tical, and  not  unlike  similar  vestiges  in  Europe.  In 
these  they  place  their  sticks  of  incense,  composed 
principally  of  sandalwood  dust,  which  serve  to  per- 
fume their  chambers,  as  well  as  to  regale  the  gods 
in  their  temples.  The  Chinese  are  great  collectors 
of  curiosities  of  all  kinds,  and  the  cabinets  of  some 
individuals  at  Canton  are  worth  examining. 

Having  considered  the  accommodations  of  the 
Chinese  when  at  rest,  we  may  view  them  in  loco- 
motion, or  when  traveUing.  The  manner  in  which 
the  greater  part  of  the  empire  is  intersected  by  rivers 
and  canals,  makes  water  carriage  the  most  common 
as  well  as  commodious  method  of  transit  from  place 
to  place :  but  where  that  is  impossible,  they  travel 
(towards  the  South)  in  chairs  ;  and  in  the  great  flat 
about  Peking  in  a  one-horse  tilted  wagon,  or  cart — 
for  it  deserves  no  better  name.  The  multiform  in- 
conveniences of  these  primitive  machines  were  ex- 
perienced by  the  members  of  the  last  embassy,  and 
have  been  feelingly  described  by  some  of  them. 
The  wheels,  frequently  solid  and  without  spokes,  are 
low  and  fixed  to  very  short  axletrees.  The  bodies, 
covered  with  tilts  of  coarse  cotton,  open  only  in 
front,  and  are  just  wide  enough  to  admit  two  persons 
closely  wedged.  They  have  no  raised  seats,  and  the 
only  posture  is  to  be  stretched  at  length,  or  with 
the  legs  drawn  up,  the  sufferer  being  always  inclose 
contact  with  the  axle,  without  the  intervention  of 
springs.  A  servant  of  the  ambassador,  who  was  an 
invalid  at  the  time,  and  had  not  strength  to  avoid  the 
violence  of  the  shocks,  actually  suffered  a  concussion 
of  the  brain. 

The  Chinese  occasionally  travel  on  horseback, 
but  their  best  land  conveyance  by  far  is  the  sedan, 
a  vehicle  which  certainly  exists  among  them  in  per- 
fection. Whether  viewed  in  regard  to  lightness, 
comfort,  or  any  other  quality  associated  with  such 
a  mode  of  carriage,  there  is  nothmg  so  convenient 


TRAVELLING.  341 

elsewhere.  Two  bearers  place  upon  their  shoulders 
the  poles,  which  are  thia  and  elastic,  and  in  shape 
something  like  the  shafts  of  a  gig  connected  near 
the  ends  ;  and  in  this  manner  they  proceed  forward 
with  a  measured  step,  an  almost  imperceptible  mo- 
tion, and  sometimes  with  considerable  speed.  In- 
stead of  pannels,  the  sides  and  back  of  the  chair 
consist  of  woollen  cloth  for  the  sake  of  lightness, 
with  a  covering  of  oilcloth  against  rain.  The  front 
is  closed  by  a  hanging-blind  of  the  same  materials, 
in  Heu  of  a  door,  Avith  a  circular  aperture  of  gauze 
to  see  through.  The  Europeans  at  Macao  furnish 
theirs  with  Venetian  blinds,  and  never  make  use  of 
any  other  carriage.  Private  persons  among  the 
Chinese  are  restricted  to  two  bearers,  ordinary  mag- 
istrates to  four,  and  the  viceroys  to  eight,  while  the 
emperor  alone  is  great  enough  to  require  sixteen. 
They  divide  the  weight  by  multiplying  the  number 
of  shoulder  sticks  applied  to  the  poles,  as  represented 
in  a  vignette  to  Staunton's  embassy,  in  an  instance 
where  the  number  of  bearers  would  be  sixteen  ;  and 
this  rule  is  made  applicable  to  the  conveyance  of  the 
heaviest  burdens  by  coolies  or  porters.  The  Chi- 
nese constantly  remind  one  of  ants,  by  the  manner 
in  which  they  conquer  difficulties  through  dint  of 
mere  numbers  ;  and  they  resemble  those  minute 
animals  not  less  in  their  persevering  and  unconquer- 
able industry. 

There  is  no  country  of  the  same  extent  in  which 
horses  are  so  little  used  for  the  purposes  of  either 
carriage  or  draft,  and  this  seems  to  arise,  in  some 
measure,  from  their  grudging  to  animals  that  food 
which  the  earth  otherwise  provides  for  man.  Their 
horses  are  in  general  miserable  stunted  creatures,  of 
the  smallest  order  of  ponies,  and  almost  always  in 
the  worst  condition;  nor  is  the  caparison  in  most 
cases  much  better  than  the  beast.  The  rider  is 
wedged  into  a  high  saddle  of  the  usual  oriental  char- 
acter, of  which  every  part,  stirrups  included,  is  ex- 
Ff2 


342  THE    CHINESE. 

tremely  heavy  and  cumbrous.  The  bridles  ought  to 
be  of  stiched  silk,  but  they  are  often  of  rope  ;  and 
tufts  of  red  horse  hair  are  sometimes  suspended 
from  the  chest  of  the  animal.  Where  no  rivers 
or  canals  afford  the  conveniences  of  water  carriage, 
the  roads,  or  rather  broad  pathways,  are  paved  in 
the  south  for  horses,  chairs,  and  foot  passengers ; 
but  no  wheel  carriages  were  met  by  the  embassies^ 
except  in  the  flat  country  towards  Peking. 

Olficial  persons  are  accommodated  with  lodging 
on  their  journeys  in  buildings  called  Koong-Icuan,  or 
government  hotels,  and  where  one  of  these  does  not 
exist,  the  priests  of  the  Budh  sect  are  called  upon  to 
provide  for  them  in  their  temples.  The  gods  appear 
sometimes  to  be  treated  with  little  ceremony  on 
these  occasions.  In  1816,  a  portion  of  the  great 
temple  on  the  side  of  the  river  opposite  to  Canton 
was  appropriated  to  the  British  embassy,  and  fitted 
up  for  them,  at  the  requisition  of  the  factory,  in  a 
very  handsome  style,  altogether  different  from  the 
mode  in  which  they  had  been  commonly  lodged  in 
the  interior.  Nothing  surprised  the  Chinese  more 
than  the  number  of  comforts  and  conveniences 
w^hich  the  English  seemed  to  require,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  their  baggage.  One  of  their  own  nation 
travels  with  little  more  than  a  hard  pillow  rolled  up 
in  a  thin  mattress,  or  a  mat ;  and,  as  for  his  v»?ard- 
robe,  he  carries  it  all  on  his  back ;  that  is,  when  not 
travelling  by  water.  In  the  latter  mode  of  carriage, 
the  great  officers  of  government  sometimes  convey 
no  small  quantity  of  goods,  and,  as  their  baggage  is 
exempted  from  search,  it  is  said  that  the  privilege  is 
often  abused  to  smuggle  opium. 

There  is  no  post  regulated  by  the  government  for 
facilitating  the  general  intercourse  of  its  subjects; 
though  one  would  imagine  that  a  system  of  the 
kind  might  be  made  very  serviceable  by  this  jealous 
autocracy  (as  it  has  by  some  others)  in  promoting 
the  special  objects  of  its  police.     The  government 


POSTS.  343 

expresses  are  forwarded  by  land  along  a  line  of 
posts,  at  each  of  which  a  horse  is  always  kept 
ready ;  and  it  is  said  that,  when  the  haste  is  urgent, 
a  feather  is  tied  to  the  packet,  and  the  express  is 
called  afei-ma,  "flying  horse,"  on  which  occasions 
the  courier  is  expected  to  go  at  the  rate  of  about  a 
hundred  miles  a  day,  until  relieved.  In  this  man- 
ner a  despatch  from  Peking  reaches  Canton,  or  vice 
versa,  a  distance  of  1,200  miles,  in  a  fortnight  or 
twelve  days.  A  letter  from  the  emperor  himself  is 
carried  by  an  officer  of  some  rank  in  a  hollow  tube, 
attached  to  his  back.  They  have  no  telegraphs,  but 
the  embassies  frequently  observed  that  three  coni- 
cal, or  rather  sugar-loaf  beacons  were  erected  on 
the  most  conspicuous  points,  to  serve  as  signals  by 
day  or  night,  with  the  assistance  of  lighted  wood  or 
straw  in  the  hollov/,  chimneylike  interior. 

There  is  printed  for  general  use  a  very  accurate 
itinerary  of  the  empire,  containing  the  distances  in 
Chinese  Ii/  from  town  to  town  ;  and  one  of  these,  on 
being  compared  with  the  actual  distances  on  the 
map,  as  travelled  by  the  last  embassy,  was  found  to 
correspond  with  sufficient  exactness.  But  the  great- 
est public  accommodation  consists  in  the  arrange- 
ments for  the  conveyance  of  goods,  which  are  regu- 
lated in  the  best  manner.  The  public  porters  are 
under  the  management  of  a  head  man,  who  is  re- 
sponsible for  them.  The  wages  for  the  number 
agreed  for  are  paid  to  him  in  advance,  upon  which 
he  furnishes  a  corresponding  number  of  tickets,  and, 
when  the  work  is  done,  these  are  delivered  as 
vouchers  to  the  several  porters  to  carry  back  and 
receive  their  money.  The  ordinary  pay  is  one 
mace,  or  under  8d.  per  diem ;  and  so  trustworthy 
are  these  poor  people,  that  not  a  single  article  was 
known  to  be  lost  by  the  embassies  in  all  the  dis- 
tance between  the  northern  and  southern  extremes 
of  the  empire. 

But,  putting  speed  out  of  the  question,  there  cer- 


344  THE    CHINESE. 

tainly  is  no  country  in  the  world  in  which  travelling 
by  water  is  so  commodious  as  in  China ;  and  it 
seems  reasonable  to  attribute  this  circumstance  to 
the  universal  prevalence  of  that  mode  of  locomotion. 
Indeed,  all  the  river  craft  of  this  people  maybe  said 
to  be  unrivalled.  The  small  draft  of  water,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  great  burden  and  stiffness  of  their 
vessels,  the  perfect  ease  with  which  they  are  worked 
through  the  most  intricate  passages,  and  most 
crowded  rivers,  and  the  surprising  accommodation 
which  they  afford,  have  always  attracted  attention. 
The  Arab  Ibn  Batuta,  whose  travels  we  have  before 
noticed,  in  describing  the  inland  trading  vessels  of 
the  Chinese,  states  that  they  were  moved  by  "  large 
oars,  which  might  be  compared  to  great  masts,  (in 
respect  of  size,)  over  which  five-and-twenty  men 
were  sometimes  placed,  who  worked  standing." 
He  evidently  alludes  to  the  enormous  and  very  pow- 
erful sculls,  which  are  worked  at  the  stern  of  their 
vessels,  exactly  as  he  describes,  at  the  present  day. 
From  its  situation  in  the  line  of  the  vessel's  course, 
this  machine  takes  up  no  room  in  the  passage  of 
their  crowded  rivers  and  canals,  an  advantage  of  no 
small  consequence,  if  considered  by  itself.  It  is  a 
moving  power,  precisely  on  the  principle  of  a  fish's 
tail,  from  which  it  is  well  known  that  the  watery 
tribes  derive  nearly  all  their  propelling  force,  as  the 
fins  do  little  more  than  serve  to  balance  them.  The 
composition  of  the  two  lateral  forces,  as  the  tail  or 
the  scull  is  worked  to  the  right  and  left,  of  course 
drives  the  fish,  or  the  vessel,  forward  in  the  diago- 
nal of  the  forces,  according  to  a  well-known  princi- 
ple in  mechanics.  Although,  in  the  Chinese  river 
craft,  there  is  always  a  rudder  to  steer  with  in  sail- 
ing, the  scull  will  at  any  time  serve  in  its  stead,  by 
merely  shifting  the  balance  of  impulse  to  either  side 
as  required.  These  sculls  are  sometimes  thirty  feet 
in  length,  and  the  friction  is  reduced  to  the  least 


TRAVELLING    BY    WATER.  845 

possible  araount,  by  the  fulcrum  being  a  tenon  and 
mortice  of  iron,  working  comparatively  on  a  point. 

The  track  ropes,  made  of  narrow  strips  of  the 
strong  silicious  surface  of  the  bamboo,  combining 
the  greatest  lightness  with  strength,  are  very  exact- 
ly described  by  Marco  Polo :    "  They  have  canes 
of  the   length  of  fifteen  paces,  such  as  have  been 
already  described,  which  they  split  in  their  whole 
length,  into  very  thin  pieces,  and  these,  by  twisting 
them  together,  they  form  into  ropes  300  paces  long  : 
so   skilfully  are  they  manufactured  that  they  are 
equal  in  strength  to  cordage  made  of  hemp.     With 
these  ropes  the  vessels  are  tracked  along  the  river 
by  means  of  ten  or  twelve  horses  to  each,  as  well 
upward  against  the  current,  as  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion."   It  is   remarkable    that   the   very  instance, 
where  the  practice  of  the  present  day  differs  from 
this  faithful  traveller's  narrative,  nlay  be  considered 
as  an  additional  proof  of  his  general  correctness. 
Horses   are   not  now  used  to   track  the   Chinese 
boats,  although  it  may  have  been  the  practice  under 
the  first  Mongol  conquerors  ;  bu*  the  emperor's  war- 
rant to  each  officer  specifies  a  certain  number  of 
horses,  according  to  his  rank,  and  men  are  supplied 
as  trackers,  in  lieu  of  horses,  at  the  rate  of  three  for 
each  horse.     Du  Halde  gives  a  very  correct  account 
of  this  in  his  second  volume.    The  oars  which  they 
occasionally  use  towards  the  head  of  their  boats, 
besides  the  scull  abaft,  are  rather  short,  with  broad 
blades.      These  are   suspended  with  a  loop  on  a 
strong  peg  at  the  side  of  the  boat,  and  there  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  its  not  being  always  necessary  to  unship 
them,  as,  when  useless,  they  are  drawn  by  the  wa- 
ter close  to  the  vessel's  side,  without  any  retarding 
effect.     There  is  besides  no  friction,  nor  any  noise 
in  a  rullock,  and  no  encumbrance  of  oars  within  the 
boat. 

The  travelling  barges,  used  by  mandarins  and  op- 
ulent persons,  afford  a  degree  of  comfort  and  accom- 


346 


THE    CHINESE. 


niodation  quite  unknown  in  boats  of  the  same  de- 
scription elsewhere ;  but  it  must  be  repeated,  that 
speed  is  a  quality  which  they  do  not  possess.  The 
roof  is  not  less  than  seven  or  eight  feet  in  height, 
and  the  principal  accommodations  consist  of  an 
anteroom  at  the  head  for  servants,  a  sittingroom 
about  the  centre  of  the  boat,  and  a  sleeping  apart- 
ment and  closet  abaft.    All  the  cooking  goes  on 


Accommoaalioi)  Barge. 

upon  the  high  overhanging  stern,  where  the  crew 
also  are  accommodated.  There  are  gangways  of 
boards  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  which  serve  for 
poling  it  along  the  shallows,  by  means  of  very  long 
and  light  bamboos,  and  which  also  allow  of  the  ser- 
vants and  crew  passing  from  head  to  stern  without 
incommoding  the  inmates.  The  better  boats  are 
very  well  lighted  by  glass  windows  at  the  sides,  or  by 
the  thin  interior  laminae  of  oyster  shells.  Others 
have  transparent  paper  or  gauze,  on  which  are  paint- 


TRAVELLING    BY   WATER.  347 

ed  flowers,  birds,  and  other  devices,  while  the  par- 
titions, or  bulkheads,  of  the  apartments  are  var- 
nished and  gilded.  The  decks  or  floors  of  the  cab- 
ins remove  in  square  compartments,  and  admit  of 
all  the  baggage  being  stowed  away  in  the  hold.  Ev- 
erything in  their  river  boats  is  kept  remarkably 
clean,  and  this  habit  presents  a  strong  contrast  to 
their  general  neglect  of  cleanliness  in  their  houses 
onshore,  which  have  not  the  same  ready  access  to 
water,  and  are  besides  often  very  ill  drained.  In 
short,  their  travelling  barges  are  as  much  superior 
to  the  crank  and  rickety  budgerows  of  India,  as  our 
European  ships  are  to  the  sea  junks  of  the  Chinese, 
who  seem  to  have  reserved  all  their  ingenuity  for 
their  river  craft,  and  to  have  afforded  as  little  en- 
couragement as  possible  to  maritime  or  foreign  ad- 
venture. 

Where  the  expense  is  not  regarded,  Europeans 
often  travel  between  Macao  and  Canton  in  the  large 
Chinese  boats,  of  some  eighty  tons'  burden,  which 
are  commonly  used  in  unloading  the  ships,  but  fitted 
up  when  required,  with  partitions,  glass  windows, 
and  other  conveniences  for  travelling.  The  charges 
of  the  mandarins,  under  the  denomination  of  duties 
and  fees,  at  length  grew  to  be  so  oppressive,  that 
the  thing  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  viceroy, 
in  1825,  and  a  considerable  abatement  made  in  the 
expense.  Still,  however,  this  is  so  considerable, 
and  the  delays  interposed  midway  in  the  passage, 
for  the  purposes  of  scrutiny  and  examination,  are  so 
tedious  and  harassing,  that  most  barbarians  prefer 
going  up  and  down  by  the  ship's  passage  in  Euro- 
pean boats.  In  this,  as  well  as  many  other  instances, 
the  cupidity  of  the  mandarins  has  defeated  its  own 
purpose. 

Nothing  could  more  strongly  characterize  the 
busy  trading  character  of  the  Chinese  among  them- 
selves, and  the  activity  of  their  internal  traffic,  than 
the  vast  numbers  of  passage  boats  which  are  con- 


348  THE    CHINESE. 

stantly  sailing  along  the  rivers  and  canals,  crowded 
both  inside  and  out  with  a  host  of  passengers.  The 
fare  in  these  vessels  is,  quaintly  enough,  termed 
shuey-keoy  ''  water  legs,""  as  it  serves  in  lieu  of  those 
limbs  to  transport  the  body.  None,  however,  above 
the  poorer  classes  avail  themselves  of  these  convey- 
ances, as  a  small  private  boat  can  always  be  en- 
gaged, by  natives,  at  a  sufficiently  cheap  rate.  That 
the  company  on  board  the  public  transports  is  not 
of  the  most  select  order,  is  plain  from  a  caution  gen- 
erally pasted  against  the  mast,  "  Kin  shin  ho  ipaou^'' 
*'  Mind  your  purses."  There  is  a  species  of  tavern,. 
or  public  house,  a  short  way  above  the  European 
factories  in  Canton,  at  the  point  whence  all  these 
passage  boats  are  obliged  to  start  by  the  regulation 
of  the  police,  and  where  the  crowd  and  concourse  is 
sometimes  really  surprising.  Regular  passports  are 
always  required,  and  the  whole  system  appears  ad- 
mirably arranged  to  promote  the  objects  of  a  very 
cautious  and  vigilant  government,  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  order,  without  impeding  the  general  circu- 
lation of  industry. 

There  is,  in  short,  a  businesslike  character  about 
the  Chinese  which  assimilates  them  in  a  striking 
manner  to  the  most  intelligent  nations  of  the  West, 
and  certainly  marks  them  out,  in  very  prominent  re- 
lief, from  the  rest  of  the  Asiatics.  However  oddly  it 
may  sound,  it  does  not  seem  too  much  to  say,  that, 
in  everything  which  enters  into  the  composition  of 
actively  industrious  and  well-organized  communi- 
ties, there  is  vastly  less  difference  between  them 
and  the  English,  French,  and  Americans,  than  be- 
tween these  and  the  inhabitants  of  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, whose  proneness  to  stolid  bigotry  and  oriental 
laziness  was  perhaps  in  part  imbibed  from  the  Arabs. 
Through  the  influence  of  climate  and  other  causes, 
these  seem  still  retained  in  a  surprising  degree, 
though  they  must  be  expected  to  give  way  to  the 
example  of  more  enlightened  nations. 


TRAVELLING    BY    WATER.  349 

Whenever  the  effects  of  our  scientific  machinery 
in  abridging  labour  are  explained  to  an  intelligent 
Chinese,  the  first  idea  that  strikes  him  is  the  disas- 
trous effect  that  such  a  system  would  work  upon  his 
overpeopled  country,  if  suddenly  introduced  into  it, 
and  ihe  never  fails  to  deprecate  such  an  innovation 
as  the  most  calamitous  of  visitations.  We  shall  see 
hereafter  that  they  have  some  ingenious  contrivan- 
ces by  which  to  avail  themselves  of  the  natural 
moving  powers  presented  by  wind,  water,  and  the 
force  of  gravity,  and  that  they  have  managed  to  ap- 
propriate in  practice  most  of  the  mechanical  powers 
with  surprising  simplicity  and  effect;  but  of  the 
strength  that  slumbers  in  the  giant  arm  of  steam 
they  are  at  once  theoretically  and  practically  igno- 
rant, although  they  both  understand  and  apply,  in 
their  commonest  .cookery,  the  heat  of  steam  under 
confinement  to  dress  vegetables. 

The  canal  and  the  Yellow  river  are  a  perpetual 
source  of  anxiety  and  expense  to  the  government,  to 
keep  their  banks  in  repair,  and  prevent  those  inun- 
dations to  which  the  country  in  their  neighbourhood 
is  constantly  liable.  The  use  of  steam  vessels  is 
therefore  utterly  precluded  by  the  peculiar  charac- 
ter and  circumstance  of  one  of  the  principal  streams 
of  China,  as  well  as  of  the  grand  canal.  But  it  was 
impossible  to  travel,  with  the  embassy  in  1816,  along 
that  noble  river  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  which  divides 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  empire  into  two  equal 
parts,  and  flows  through  its  finest  climates,  without 
wishing  i^r  steamboats ;  more  especially  while  suf- 
fering under  the  delay  that  arose  from  sailing  up 
against  that  mighty  stream,  which  runs  with  a  pre- 
vailing ebb  towards  the  sea.  It  is  indeed  for  such 
rivers  as  the  Mississippi  and  the  Keang  that  steam- 
ers are  most  peculiarly  fitted,  and  nothing  can  be 
less  like  steamers  than  the  progress  of  the  Chinese 
travelling  boats.  Those  very  points  of  shape  and 
construction,  from  which  they  derive  their  commo- 

VoL.  I. — G  G 


350  THE    CHINESE. 

diousness  and  safety,  render  them  extremely  slow, 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  their  smuggling  boats,  the  Chinese 
may  be  said  to  be  anything  but  economists  of  time 
on  the  water. 

The  following  extract  from  an  unpublished  jour- 
nal of  the  last  embassy*  exactly  describes  the  sin- 
gular process  of  passing  the  sluices  which  are  sub- 
stituted on  the  grand  canal  for  locks.  The  advantage 
of  the  latter  mode  (which  seems  unknown  to  the 
Chinese)  is,  the  vessel  being  raised  or  lowered  to  a 
different  level  by  the  gradual  rise  or  fall  of  the  water 
in  which  it  floats,  by  which  means  the  dangers  of  a 
sluice  are  completely  obviated.  "It  was  announced 
that  some  of  our  boats  were  come  up  for  the  pur- 
pose of  passing  through  the  sluice,  upon  which  the 
ambassador  proposed  to  the  legate  that  we  should 
walk  up  to  the  pier  head,  to  see  the  manner  in  which 
this  was  effected.  The  legate  said  he  would  accom- 
pany us  with  pleasure,  being  himself  curious  to  see 
the  boats  pass ;  and  we  all  accordingly  stood  upon 
the  pier  head,  while  the  four  headmost  boats  (of 
sixty  or  seventy  tons'  burden)  were  shot  through 
the  sluice.  By  means  of  the  precautions  adopted, 
which  consisted  partly  in  hanging  against  the  sides 
of  the  pier  large  fenders,  or  cushions,  of  rope  to 
deaden  an  accidental  concussion,  the  boats  passed 
through  with  perfect  safety.  The  fall  was  some- 
what greater  than  that  of  the  Thames  under  the 
arches  of  old  London  bridge,  but  still  the  hazard 
and  difficulty  seem  to  have  been  a  good  ckal  mag- 
nified. The  stone  abutments  were  constructed 
chiefly  of  large  blocks  of  grey  marble  or  limestone, 
with  a  few  blocks  of  granite  intermixed.  After  the 
boats  had  passed,  we  returned  with  the  legate  to  the 
pavilion  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  rose  to  rejoin 
our  sedans,  and  return  in  them  to  our  boats, 

*  Journal  of  Sir  George  Staunton. 


PASSING    A    GANAL    SLUICE,  351 

*'  At  half  past  twelve  we  passed  through  a  second 
sluice  similar  to  the  first,  without  taking  the  trouble 
to  quit  our  boats.  We  then  brought  to  for  some 
time,  and  did  not  pass  through  the  third  sluice  un- 
til about  four.  The  fall  here  was  fully  as  great,  and 
the  torrent  as  rapid,  as  in  the  first  sluice;  but  we 
all  declined  the  legate's  second  invitation  to  land 
while  the  boats  were  passing  through.  The  pas- 
sage was  effected  by  the  whole  of  our  squadron 
without  loss  or  accident.  The  boats  of  smaller 
dimensions  steered  directly  for  the  sluice,  and  shot 
through  the  opening  at  once  ;  but  our  common  din- 
ner boat,  and  those  of  the  ambassador  and  commis- 
sioners, were  obliged  to  be  warped  along  the  bank 
up  to  the  pier  head  gradually.  In  both  modes  any 
failure  or  mistake  from  bad  steerage  or  ropes  giving 
way  might  have  been  attended  with  serious  conse- 
quences ;  for  if  any  of  the  smaller  boats  had  struck 
on  the  pier  head,  or  if  any  of  the  larger  ones  had 
swung  round  and  presented  their  broadsides  to  the 
sluice,  they  would  in  both  cases  have  run  consider- 
able hazard  of  being  stove  in  and  wrecked,  and  some 
of  the  persons  in  them  might  have  been  drowned  in 
the  confusion.  The  large  boat  in  which  I  was  had 
been  warped  up  to  a  proper  position,  and  was  on 
the  point  of  being  loosened  from  the  ropes  in  order 
to  shoot  through  the  aperture,  when  a  succession  of 
small  boats  unexpectedly  came  up,  and  possessed 
themselves  of  the  passage,  compelling  us  to  hold  on 
against  the  stream  for  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
in  a  situation  that  was  awkward,  if  not  hazardous." 

It  is  curious  to  find  this  description  of  the  pas- 
sage on  the  canal  so  exactly  agreeing  with  that  of 
an  Arabian  traveller  not  much  less  than  six  hundred 
years  ago,  soon  after  that  artificial  route  by  water 
was  constructed  under  the  Mongol  conquerors  of 
China.  The  difference  of  level  is  commonly  from 
five  to  six  feet  at  the  sluices,  but  in  passing  by  the 
town  of  Hoay-gan,  near  the  embouchure  of  the  Yel« 


352  THE    CHINESE. 

low  river,  the  boats  sailed  at  aa  elevation  of  be- 
tween fifteen  and  twenty  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
city,  and  the  travellers  looked  down  upon  the  roofs 
of  the  houses,  which  any  accident  to  the  bank  of 
the  canal  must  inevitably  have  consigned  to  de- 
struction. The  existence  of  such  a  work  in  China, 
at  a  time  when  Europe  was  involved  in  comparative 
barbarism,  affords  curious  subject  for  reflection. 


CHAPTER  X. 

01  T  I  E  S P  EKING. 

External  Walls  of  Peking. — Interior  Aspect  of  Tartarian  City. — 
Circuit  of  the  Imperial  Wall. — Southern  or  Chinese  City. — 
Difficulty  of  Feeding  the  Population.— Dangers  of  the  Em- 
peror.— Gardens  of  Yuen-ming-yuen. — Occurrence  there  in  the 
last  Embassy. — Expenses  of  the  Court. — Tartars  and  Chi- 
nese.— Police  of  Peking. — Efficiency  of  Chinese  Pohce. — 
Case  of  a  French  Crew  murdered. — Punishment  of  the  Pirates. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  all  the  principal  cities 
of  China  consists  in  the  high  castellated  walls  of 
blue  brick  by  which  they  are  surrounded,  and  of 
which  the  wall  of  Peking  may  be  considered  as  a 
specimen,  with  some  considerable  difference,  of 
course,  in  respect  to  its  superior  height  and  thick- 
ness. Like  the  ancient  rampart  of  the  empire,  this 
consists  of  a  mound  of  earth  or  rubbish  incased  with 
brick.  The  height  is  about  thirty  feet,  the  thin  par- 
apet being  deeply  embattled,  with  intermediate  loop- 
holes, but  bearing  no  resemblance  to  regular  em- 
brasures for  artillery.  Indeed  cannon  are  not  often 
seen  mounted  on  the  walls,  although  there  are  gen- 
erally some  lying  about  near  the  gates.  The  thick- 
ness of  the  wall  at  the  base  is  nearly  twenty  feet, 


EXTENT    OF    PEKING.  353 

diminishing,  by  the  inclination  of  the  inner  surface, 
to  twelve  or  more  at  the  summit.  The  height  and 
weight  of  this  wall,  with  its  perpendicular  external 
face,  would  only  serve  to  facilitate  the  operations 
of  battering  cannon,  which,  of  course,  would  begin 
to  breach  from  the  base ;  but  the  principal  weapon, 
in  the  wars  of  the  Chinese  and  Tartars,  has  always 
been  the  bow  and  arrow.  At  each  gate  the  wall  is 
doubled  by  an  outer  enclosure  in  a  semicircular  shape, 
the  entrance  to  which  is  not  opposite  to  the  princi- 
pal gate,  but  lateral,  with  a  view  to  security  and 
defence.  Over  both  gates  are  erected  towers  of 
several  stories,  which  serve  to  lodge  the  soldiers 
who  guard  them.  At  intervals  of  about  sixty  yards 
along  the  length  of  the  wall,  are  flanking  towers  or 
bastions  of  the  same  height,  projecting  about  thirty 
feet  from  the  curtain.  Most  of  the  plans  of  Peking 
represent  a  wet  ditch  entirely  compassing  the  sides 
of  the  city,  and  it  no  doubt  extends  round  a  certain 
portion  ;  but  when  the  embassy  passed,  in  1816,  it 
is  quite  certain  that  the  northeast  portion  had  not 
even  a  dry  ditch,  and  that  some  of  the  gentlemen 
quitted  their  vehicles  to  take  out  specimens  of  the 
brick  from  numerous  holes  which  time  and  neglect 
had  produced  in  the  face  of  the  wall.  The  same 
thing  was  observed  at  Nanking,  the  ancient  enclo- 
sure of  which  was  nearly  as  lofty  as  the  present 
bulwark  of  Peking,  but  no  remains  of  a  ditch  could 
be  perceived  at  that  part  which  the  travellers  vis- 
ited. 

The  area  on  which  Nanking  stood  was  more  ex- 
tensive than  the  space  enclosed  by  the  walls  of 
Peking,  but  the  greater  portion  of  the  surface  sur- 
rounded by  the  ancient  defence  is  now  devoid  of 
even  the  traces  of  buildings  ;  and  the  city  of  Keang- 
ning-foo,  as  it  is  at  present  called,  occupies  only  a 
corner  of  the  original  enclosure.  Peking  likewise 
contains  so  many  void  spaces  of  great  extent,  that 
it  is  very  difficult,  considering  the  lowness  of  the 
Gg2 


354  THE    CHINESE. 

one-Storied  buildings,  to  imagine  how  it  can  hold 
such  a  monstrous  population  as  some  have  attribu- 
ted to  it.  A  very  large  portion  of  the  northern  or 
Tartarian  city  is  occupied  by  the  enclosure  which 
contains  the  palaces  and  pleasure  grounds  of  the 
emperor ;  the  remainder  is  studded  over  with  offi- 
cial or  religious  buildings,  all  of  them  surrounded 
by  large  open  courts ;  and  the  Chinese  city  to  the 
south  has  some  very  extensive  spaces  occupied  by 
immensely  spreading  buildings,  and  grounds  at- 
tached, where  the  emperor  sacrifices  to  Heaven,  and 
performs  the  annual  ceremony  of  ploughing;  with 
various  other  rites.  There  are,  besides,  large  sheets 
of  water,  and  gardens  devoted  to  the  growth  of 
vegetables  for  the  city.  With  every  allowance, 
therefore,  for  the  extent  of  area  enclosed  by  the 
walls,  the  population  of  Peking  can  hardly  exceed 
that  which  is  comprised  within  the  London  bills  of 
mortality ;  though  it  has  been  stated  at  double  that 
amount. 

Father  Hyacinth,  long  resident  in  the  capital  of 
China  as  a  member  of  the  Russian  mission,  has 
given  a  very  circumstantial  account  of  it,  much  of 
which  is  founded  on  personal  observation,  and  the 
rest  derived  from  inquiry  or  books.  The  short  time 
which  the  mission  of  Earl  Macartney  passed  there 
admitted  of  fewer  opportunities  of  investigation; 
but  Mr.  Barrow,  who  was  left  at  Peking  and  Yuen- 
ming-yuen,  while  the  ambassador  attended  the  em- 
peror beyond  the  wall,  made  very  good  use  of  his 
time,  and  has  given  us  a  graphic  description  of  what 
he  saw.  The  streets  of  Canton  and  of  most  other 
cities  are  extremely  narrow,  admitting  of  only  three 
or  four  foot  passengers  abreast ;  but  the  principal 
thoroughfares  of  Peking,  which  connect  its  differ- 
ent gates,  are  fully  one  hundred  feet  in  width.  These 
are  unpaved,  no  doubt  in  consequence  of  the  diffi- 
culty and  expense  of  procuring  stone  in  the  immense 
alluvial  flat  on  which  the  city  stands ;  and  every  in- 


INTERIOR    ASPECT    OF    PEKING.  355 

habitant  is  compelled  by  the  police  to  clean  and 
sprinkle  with  water,  during  the  dry  monlhs,  that 
portion  of  the  street  which  fronts  his  abode,  with  a 
view  to  allay  the  dust.  In  rainy  weather,  however, 
the  principal  ways  are  said  to  be  in  a  dreadful  state, 
from  the  want  of  proper  drains,  and  in  consequence 
of  the  perfect  level  of  the  ground  not  allowing  the 
water  to  flow  off. 

Sir  George  Staunton  thus  describes  the  appear- 
ance of  the  capital,  when  it  was  traversed  by  the 
embassy  on  the  way  to  Yuen-ming-yuen :  "The 
first  street  extended  on  a  line  directly  to  the  west- 
ward, until  it  was  interrupted  by  the  eastern  wall  of 
the  imperial  palace,  called  the  Yellow  Wall,*  from 
the  colour  of  the  small  roof  of  varnished  tiles  with 
which  the  top  of  it  is  covered.  Various  public 
buildings,  seen  at  tlie  same  time,  and,  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  emperor,  were  covered  in  the  same 
manner.  Those  roofs,  uninterrupted  by  chimneys, 
and  indented  in  the  sides  and  ridges  into  gentle 
curves,  with  an  effect  more  pleasing  than  would  be 
produced  by  long  straight  fines,  were  adorned  with 
a  variety  of  figures,  either  in  imitation  of  real  ob- 
jects, or  more  commonly  as  mere  works  of  fancy; 
the  whole  shining  like  gold  under  a  brilliant  sun,  im- 
mediately caught  the  eye  with  an  appearance  of 
grandeur  in  that  part  of  the  buildings  where  it  was 
not  accustomed  to  be  sought  for.  Immense  maga- 
zines of  rice  were  seen  near  the  gate  ;  and,  looking 
from  it  to  the  left  along  the  city  wall,  was  perceived  au 
elevated  edifice,  described  as  an  observatory  erected 
in  the  former  dynasty,  by  the  Emperor  Yoong-lo,  to 
whom  the  chief  embellishments  of  Peking  are  said 
to  be  owing. 

"  Several  circumstances,  independently  of  the  ar- 
rival of  strangers,  contributed  to  throng  so  wide  a 
street.     A  procession  was  moving  towards  the  gate, 

*  The  Chinese  name  is  "  The  Imperial  Wall." 


356  THE    CHINESE. 

in  which  the  white  or  bridal  colour  (according  to  Eu- 
ropean ideas)  of  the  persons  who  formed  it,  seemed  at 
first  to  announce  a  marriage  ceremony ;  but  the  ap- 
pearance of  young  men  overwhelmed  with  grief 
showed  it  to  be  a  funeral,*  much  more  indeed  than 
the  corse  itself,  which  was  contained  in  a  handsome 
square  case,  shaded  with  a  canopy  painted  with  gay 
and  lively  colours,  and  preceded  by  standards  of  va- 
riegated silks.  Behind  it  were  sedan  chairs  covered 
with  white  cloth  containing  the  female  relations  of 
the  deceased.  The  white  colour,  denoting  in  China 
the  affliction  of  those  who  wear  it,  is  sedulously 
avoided  by  such  as  wish  to  manifest  sentiments  of  a 
contrary  kind  ;t  it  is  therefore  never  seen  in  the  cer- 
emony of  nuptials,  (met  soon  afterward,)  where  the 
lady,  as  yet  unseen  by  the  bridegroom,  is  carried  in 
a  gilded  and  gaudy  chair,  hung  round  with  festoons  of 
artificial  flowers,  and  followed  by  relations,  attend- 
ants, and  servants  bearing  the  paraphernalia,  being 
the  only  portion  given  with  a  daughter  in  marriage  by 
her  parents.  The  crowd  was  not  a  little  increased 
by  the  mandarins  of  rank  appearing  always  with 
numerous  attendants ;  and  still  more  by  circles  of 
the  populace  round  auctioneers,  venders  of  medi- 
cines, fortunetellers,  singers,  jugglers,  and  story- 
tellers, beguiling  their  hearers  of  a  few  of  their  tchem 
or  copper  money,  intended  probably  for  other  pur- 
poses. Among  the  stories  that  caught,  at  this  mo- 
ment, the  imagination  of  the  people,  the  arrival  of 
the  embassy  was  said  to  furnish  no  inconsiderable 
share.  The  presents  brought  by  it  to  the  emperor 
were  asserted  to  include  whatever  was  rare  in  other 
countries,  or  not  known  before  to  the  Chinese.  Of 
the  animals  that  were  brought,  it  was  gravely  men- 
tioned that  there  was  an  elephant  of  the  size  of  a 

*  The  Chinese,  who  are  not  fond  of  using  ill-omened  words, 
call  a  funeral  "  a  white  affair." 

t  It  is  avoided  as  being  unlucky,  or  ill  omened.  The  colour 
of  compliment  or  congratulation  is  red. 


INTERIOR    ASPECT    OF    PEKING.  367 

monkey,  and  as  fierce  as  a  lion,  and  a  cock  that  fed 
on  charcoal.  ******* 

"  As  soon  as  the  persons  belonging  to  the  embassy- 
had  arrived  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  Yellow  Wall, 
they  turned  along  it  to  the  right,  and  found  on  its 
northern  side  much  less  bustle  than  in  the  former 
street.  Instead  of  shops,  all  were  private  houses, 
not  conspicuous  in  the  front.  Before  each  house 
was  a  wall  or  curtain,  to  prevent  passengers  from 
seeing  the  court  into  which  the  street  door  opened. 
This  wall  is  called  the  wall  of  respect.  A  halt  was 
made  opposite  the  treble  gates,  which  are  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  this  northern  side  of  the  palace 
wall.  It  appeared  to  enclose  a  large  quantity  of 
ground :  it  was  not  level  hke  all  the  lands  without 
the  wall :  some  of  it  was  raised  into  hills  of  steep 
ascent ;  the  earth  taken  to  form  them  left  broad  and 
deep  hollows,  now  filled  with  water.  Out  of  these 
artificial  lakes,  of  which  the  margins  were  diversi- 
fied and  irregular,  small  islands  rose,  with  a  variety 
of  fanciful  edifices,  interspersed  with  trees.  On  the 
hillsof  different  heights  the  principal  palaces  for  the 
emperor  were  erected.  The  whole  had  somewhat 
the  appearance  of  enchantment.  ******  From 
the  spot  whence  an  opportunity  thus  offered  to  take  a 
glance,  through  the  gates  of  the  palace  wall,  at  part  of 
what  was  enclosed  within  it,  the  eye,  turning  to  the 
north,  observed,  through  a  street  extending  to  the  city 
wall,  the  great  fabric,  of  considerable  height,  which 
includes  a  bell  of  prodigious  size  and  cylindrical 
form,  that,  struck  on  the  outside  with  a  wooden  mal- 
let, emits  a  sound  distinctly  heard  throughout  the 
capital.  Beyond  it,  but  more  to  the  westward,  was 
one  of  the  northern  gates,  the  watch  tower  over  which 
rendered  it  visible  above  the  intermediate  buildings. 
Proceeding  on  beyond  the  palace  gates,  directly 
to  the  westward,  between  the  Yellow  Wall  and  the 
northern  buildings  of  the  city,  is  a  lake  of  some 
acres  in  extent,  now,  in  autumn,  almost  entirely 


358  THE    CHINESE. 

overspread  with  the  peltated  leaf  of  the  nymfhcEa  nc' 
lurnho,  or  lien-wha  of  the  Chinese.  *******  fhe 
route  was  continued  westerly  through  the  city. 
The  dwelhnghouse  of  some  Russians  was  pointed 
out ;  and,  what  was  more  singular,  a  library  of  foreign 
manuscripts,  one  of  which  was  said  to  be  an  Arabic 
copy  of  the  Koran.  Some  Mohammedans  were  seen, 
distinguished  by  red  caps.  Among  the  spectators  of 
the  novel  sight  some  women  were  observed  ;  the 
greatest  number  were  said  to  be  natives  of  Tartary 
or  of  a  Tartar  race.  Their  feet  were  not  cramped 
like  those  of  the  Chinese ;  and  their  shoes,  with 
broad  toes,  and  soles  above  an  inch  in  thickness, 
were  as  clumsy  as  those  of  the  original  Chinese  la- 
dies were  diminutive.  A  few  of  the  former  were  well 
dressed,  with  delicate  features,  and  their  complex- 
ions heightened  with  the  aid  of  art.  A  thick  patch 
of  vermilion  on  the  middle  of  the  lower  lip  seemed 
to  be  a  favourite  mode  of  using  paint.  Some  of 
them  were  sitting  in  covered  carriages,  of  which,  as 
well  as  of  horses,  there  are  several  to  be  found  for 
hire  in  various  parts  of  the  town.*  A  few  of  the 
Tartar  ladies  were  on  horseback,  and  rode  astride 
like  men.  Tradesmen,  with  their  tools,  searching 
for  employment,  and  pedlars  oifering  their  wares  for 
sale,  were  everywhere  to  be  seen.  Several  of  the 
streets  were  narrow,  and  at  the  entrance  of  them 
gates  were  erected,  near  which  guards  were  sta- 
tioned, it  was  said,  to  quell  any  occasional  disturb- 
ance in  the  neighbourhood.  Tliose  gates  are  shut 
at  night,  and  opened  only  in  cases  of  exigence.  The 
train  of  the  embassy  crossed  a  street  which  ex- 
tended north  and  south  the  whole  length  of  the 
Tartar  city,  almost  four  miles,  and  is  interrupted  only 
by  several  pai-loos,  or  triumphal  fabrics  ;  and  pass- 
ing by  many  temples  and  other  capacious  buildings 
and  magazines,  they  reached,  in  little  more  than  two 

*None  but  privileged  persons  can  use  a  chair  so  near  to  the 
emperor  :  but,  in  other  parts,  these  are  common  eonveyarices. 


INTERIOR  ASPECT  OF  PEKING.     359 

hours  from  their  entrance  on  the  eastern  side,  to  one 
of  the  western  city  gates." 

From  this  they  issued  towards  the  imperial  park 
of  Yuen-ming-yuen,  and  the  route,  thus  accurately 
described,  can  readily  be  traced  on  the  plan  of 
Peking.  The  Tartar  city,  through  which  they 
passed,  is  about  three  miles  in  breadth  from  east  to 
west,  and  four  in  length  from  north  to  south.  The 
portion  traversed  by  the  embassy  was  rather  more 
than  five  miles,  which  was  as  much  as  they  could 
accomplish,  with  all  interruptions,  in  the  space  of 
time  mentioned  above.  The  observatory  seen  by 
them  to  the  left  on  entering  the  city,  was  that  of  the 
Kin-sing,  (or  planet  Venus,)  near  the  southeast  corner 
of  the  wall.  A  new  set  of  instruments  was  made 
for  it  by^  order  of  Kang-hy,  under  the  direction  of 
the  Catholic  missionaries  ;  and  the  astronomical  in- 
struments brought  out  by  Lord  Macartney  were  sub- 
sequently deposited  there.  The  high  fabric,  with 
its  large  cylindrical  bell,  which  the  travellers  ob- 
served between  the  north  gate  of  the  imperial  wall, 
and  the  extremity  of  the  Tartar  city  on  that  side,  is 
the  Choong-low,  or  "  Bell  tower,"  near  to  which  is 
the  office  of  the  "  General  of  the  Nine  Gates,"  to 
whose  charge  is  intrusted  the  police  of  the  city.  A 
wooden  mallet,  being  struck  upon  the  huge  bell, 
makes  known  the  five  watches  of  the  night,  and  the 
sound  is  heard  through  the  greater  part  of  the  city. 
Within  the  precincts  of  the  Tartarian  city,  near 
the  southern  gate  of  the  imperial  wall,  are  the  prin- 
cipal boards  or  tribunals  of  the  supreme  govern- 
ment ;  and  not  far  from  them  is  the  college  of  the 
Russian  mission,  consisting  of  ten  persons,  who  are 
periodically  relieved  from  St.  Petersburgh.  Near 
the  westernmost  of  the  three  southern  gates,  the 
Portuguese  Jesuits  had  their  college ;  but  the  last 
of  this  fraternity  was  sent  away  in  the  year  1827,  in 
the  person  of  Padre  Serra,  who  then  furnished  us 
with  some  curious  notes.    The  most  favoured  of  the 


360  THE    CHINESE. 

Catholics,  who  were  the  French  Jesuits  employed  by 
Kang-hy,  had  their  dwelling  allotted  within  the  circuit 
of  the  imperial  wall,  near  the  lake  and  gardens  on 
the  north  and  west  of  the  enclosure.  This  great 
space,  occupying  an  area  of  about  two  square  miles, 
is  just  in  the  centre  of  the  Tartarian  city,  and  can 
be  entered  by  none  but  authorized  persons.  It  cor- 
responds iu  shape  to  the  outer  limits  of  the  city, 
being  an  oblong  square,  built  on  a  very  regular  plan  ; 
and  contains  within  itself  a  third  and  still  more  sa- 
cred enclosure,  devoted  exclusively  to  the  emperor's 
abode,  called  "  The  Prohibited  Wall."  This  con- 
tains the  private  palaces  of  the  sovereign  and  his 
empress,  communicating  by  a  gate  on  the  north 
with  a  square  two  thirds  of  a  mile  in  length,  in 
which  are  situated  the  artificial  hills  and  woods 
mentioned  by  Sir  George  Staunton,  as  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance in  his  progress  through  Peking.  The  archi- 
tecture and  arrangements  of  the  palaces  and  courts 
within  the  "  prohibited  wall"  are  described  as  far 
exceeding  any  other  specimens  of  the  kind  in  China. 
In  regard  to  population,  the  vast  areas  inclu- 
ded within  the  imperial  wall,  and  the  central  or  pro- 
hibited wall,  may  be  considered  comparatively  as 
empty  spaces.  Father  Hyacinth  describes  the  lakes 
and  gardens  which  he  saw  as  occupying  nearly  the 
whole  western  side  of  the  larger  parallelogram,  the 
lake  alone  being  upward  of  a  mile  in  length.  From 
his  account  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  palaces  and 
gardens  of  the  Chinese  emperor  are  worthy  of  the 
master  of  so  many  millions  of  subjects,  who  have 
been  estimated  at  a  third  of  the  whole  human  race. 
So  much  of  the  capital,  however,  being  devoted  to 
the  emperor,  it  is  not  easy  to  find  lodging  within  the 
remainder  for  the  three  millions  of  people  which 
some  have  stated  that  its  walls,  and  those  of  the 
southern  or  Chinese  city,  contain  together.  This 
number  nearly  equals  the  lohole  population  of  the 
kingdom  of  Portugal  by  the  latest  census.   If  we  ad- 


INTERIOR  ASPECT  OF  PEKING.     361 

mit  that  the  number  of  subjects  who  own  the  em- 
peror of  China  for  their  master  really  exceeds  the 
amount  of  three  hundred  millions,  he  may  well 
speak  with  contempt  of  those  states  whose  entire 
population  goes  not  beyond  the  hundredth  fart  of 
his  own  "  black-haired  race,"  as  he  calls  them. 

On  the  east  side  of  the  Tartarian  city  is  the  Altar 
of  the  Sun,  because  the  luminary  rises  in  that  quar- 
ter ;  and  for  a  similar,  though  not  the  same  reason, 
the  Altar  of  the  Moon  is  on  the  western  side,  be- 
cause at  the  opposition,  or  at  full  moon,  she  sets  in 
the  west,  while  the  sun  rises  on  the  other  side. 
This  regard  to  the  place  of  the  sun's  rising  serves 
to  explain  several  points  in  Chinese  customs.  Their 
climate  makes  it  necessary  to  build  all  considerable 
houses  fronting  the  south,  but  closed  to  the  north ; 
for  the  sake  of  admitting  the  southerly  monsoon  in 
summer,  and  excluding  the  northerly  in  \tinter.  The 
eastern  side  of  the  house  is  the  most  honourable,  for 
the  reason  above  given,  and  the  master  of  a  family 
is  therefore  called  Tong-kea,  "  East  of  the  House- 
hold." But  the  left  hand  is  likewise  to  the  east  of 
the  principal  seat  in  the  hall  of  reception,  which 
serves  to  explain  the  circumstance  of  their  making 
the  left  side  the  place  of  honour,  so  contrary  to  the 
custom  which  generally  prevails  in  other  countries. 

The  Chinese  town,  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the 
Tartarian,  or  "  City  of  Nine  Gates,"  is  not  subject  to 
the  same  rigid  system  of  military  police  as  that 
which  contains  the  abode  of  the  emperor;  and  its 
walls  and  defences  are  inferior  to  those  of  the  other, 
being,  in  fact,  like  the  ordinary  Chinese  towns.  The 
included  area  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the  Tartarian 
city,  but  of  this  a  very  considerable  portion  is  oc- 
cupied by  the  immense  courts  of  the  temples  dedi- 
cated to  "  Heaven,"  and  to  the  deified  inventor 
of  agriculture,  (sometimes  styled  the  Temple  of 
*'  Earlh,")  where  the  emperor  sacrifices  annually, 
and  performs  the  ceremony  of  ploughing  the  sacred 

Vol.  I.— Hh 


362  THE    CHINESE. 

field.  The  Altar  to  Heaven  stands  in  a  square  en- 
closure, measuring  about  three  miles  in  circuit,  near 
the  southern  wall  of  the  Chinese  city.  The  terrace 
consists  of  three  stages,  diminishing  from  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  to  sixty  feet  in  diameter,  each  stage 
being  surrounded  by  a  marble  balustrade,  and  as- 
cended by  steps  of  the  same  material.  Towards 
the  northwest  of  the  enclosure  is  the  Palace  of 
Abstinence,  where  the  emperor  fasts  for  three  days 
preparatory  to  offering  sacrifices  to  the  heavens  at 
the  winter  solstice.  On  the  other  side  of  the  great 
central  street  leading  to  the  Tartarian  city,  and  just 
over  against  the  Temple  of  the  Heavens,  stands  the 
Altar  of  the  Earth.  The  square  enclosure  is  about 
two  miles  in  circuit,  and  contains  the  field  which  is 
once  a  year  ploughed  by  the  emperor  and  his  great 
ofiicers,  and  the  produce  reserved  for  sacrifices. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  southeast  angle  of  the  Chi- 
nese city  are  extensive  sheets  of  water,  and  large 
open  spaces  cultivated  with  grain  and  vegetables 
for  the  use  of  Peking.  Towards  the  southwest  an- 
gle, also,  beyond  the  Temple  of  the  Heavens  and 
the  Earth,  is  a  huge  pool  or  lake,  dedicated  to  the 
genius  of  the  watery  element,  under  the  designation 
oi  He-loong,  the  "Black  Dragon,"  where  the  emper- 
or either  deprecates  or  prays  for  rain,  according  as 
the  country  may  be  afflicted  by  deluge  or  drought. 
These  great  chasms  in  the  population  of  the  capi- 
tal, with  the  vast  spaces  occupied  by  the  imperial 
palaces  and  gardens,  make  it  very  improbable  that 
the  population  of  Peking  is  more  than  twice  that  of 
London,  especially  as  the  houses  are  only  of  one 
story.  The  less  strict  police  of  the  Chinese  city 
makes  it  a  place  of  retirement  to  many  from  the 
other,  where  the  precautions  for  the  emperor's  per- 
sonal safety  and  quiet  produce  a  system  of  disciphne 
not  unlike  that  of  a  garrison  town.  The  "  General 
of  the  Nine  Gates,"  under  whose  charge  it  is  placed, 
was  sent,  in  1816,  to  urge  the  departure  of  the  em- 


POLICE    OF    PEKING.  363 

bassy  from  Yuen-ming-yiien,  and  he  did  his  best  to 
excite  their  alarm,  by  telling  them  that  he  com- 
manded "  a  million  of  men." 

There  seems  to  be  some  reason  for  the  care  with 
■which  the  Tartarian  city  is  guarded,  if  we  take  into 
consideration  the  dangers  arising  from  occasional 
scarcities  in  an  immensely  populous  city,  which  is 
fed,  in  a  great  measure,  with  grain  brought  from  the 
southern  provinces.  In  the  year  1824,  the  court 
was  seriously  alarmed  by  the  consequences  of  a 
severe  drought,  which  produced,  first,  want,  and  af- 
terward pestilence  at  Peking.  The  present  emper- 
or, then  reigning,  issued  a  proclamation  in  these 
words :  "  The  numerous  resort  of  a  hungry  popu- 
lace from  the  surrounding  country  has  led  to  the 
occasional  plundering  of  articles  of  food,  and  we 
have  already  issued  our  commands  for  restraining 
and  controlling  them.  One  of  the  censors  has  re- 
ported that  sundry  vagrants,  with  the  excuse  of  want 
and  starvation,  have  been  committing  depredations 
in  the  markets  and  other  places  of  public  resort,  in 
contravention  of  the  laws.  The  proper  authorities 
are  hereby  commanded  to  issue  proclamations  on 
the  subject,  and  to  exercise  a  rigid  control,  that  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  imperial  residence  may  be  well 
governed  and  orderly.  The  erection  of  additional 
playhouses  (according  to  the  same  report)  being 
highly  prejudicial  to  the  morals  of  the  people,  the 
police  of  the  city  must  also  restrain  and  keep  them 
within  bounds." 

Soon  after  was  issued  the  subjoined  :  "  The  dif- 
ferent stations  at  Peking  have  distributed  grain  du- 
ring a  long  continued  period;  but  on  the  20th  day  of 
the  5th  moon  let  them  all  be  shut,  and  the  distribu- 
tion cease,  as  the  stores  will  not  admit  of  further 
donations.  The  harvest  is  now  approaching,  and 
the  people  may  return  to  their  several  districts  to 
seek  a  livelihood  by  their  own  labour.  Let  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  province  enjoin  the  district  officers  to 


364  THE    CHIJSESE. 

exercise  a  strict  vigilance,  at  the  same  lime  sooth- 
ing the  distressed  populace,  and  preventing  their 
wandering  about  in  a  dispersed  and  vagabond  man- 
ner; thus  seconding  our  paternal  solicitude  to  cherish 
them  in  our  bosom."  To  avert  the  drought  which 
had  created  this  distress,  the  emperor  ordained  cer- 
tain religious  observances,  and  we  give  an  extract 
from  his  edict :  "  On  account  of  the  drought  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  capital,  and  the  destitution  of 
the  husbandman's  fields,  which  have  looked  in  vain 
for  fertilizing  showers,  we  sent  down  our  will  that 
altars  should  be  erected  at  He-loong  Tan*  and  else- 
where. Although,  during  the  last  ten  days,  there 
has  been  a  slight  appearance  of  rain,  it  was  quite  in- 
adequate to  moisten  the  earth.  Let  our  eldest  son 
Ye-heng,  on  the  7th  day  of  the  present  moon,  pro- 
ceed reverentially  to  the  Temple  of  the  Heavens  to 
worship.  Let  our  imperial  relative,  Mien-kae,  pro- 
ceed with  reverence  to  the  Temple  of  the  Earth  to 
sacrifice  ;  and  Mien-hia  to  the  Temple  of  the  Year. 
Let  our  son,  Ye-chaou,  likewise  sacrifice  at  the 
Temple  of  the  Winds.  ******  Having  sent 
down  our  will  regarding  the  sacrifices  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  princes  and  great  ministers  on  the  7th 
of  the  moon,  we  now  intimate  our  intention  to  burn 
incense  in  person,  on  the  same  day,  at  the  Altar  of 
the  Black  Dragon."*  This  may  serve  as  a  speci- 
men of  the  state  worship  of  China. 

But  other  dangers  beset  the  emperor  in  his  capi- 
tal, either  from  the  machinations  of  relatives,  wh/? 
may  plot  against  the  throne,  or  from  the  treason  of 
secret  societies  or  brotherhoods,  of  which  we  shall 
have  to  speak.  "Though  the  succession  to  the 
throne,"  observed  Padre  Serra,  "depends  on  the 
arbitrary  nomination  of  the  reigning  prince,  this  does 

*  He-loong  is  the  Saghalien,  or  Black  Dragon,  which  repre- 
sents the  principal  river  of  Manchow  Tartary,  worshipped  by 
the  reigning  family.  The  dragon  always  signifies  the  watery 
element,  or  rivers. 


DANGERS  OF  THE  EMPEROR.      365 

not  always  prevent  usurpations.  An  instance  of 
this  was  seen  in  the  succession  of  Yoong-ching  to 
his  father,  the  great  Kang-hy.  The  prince  nomina- 
ted was  the  fourth ;  but  this  latter  being  in  Tartary 
at  the  period  of  the  emperor's  somewhat  sudden  de- 
mise, Yoong-ching,  who  was  a  privileged  wang,  (or 
regvlus,)  entered  the  palace  and  seized  the  billet  of 
nomination.  Before  the  number  four,  which  he 
there  found,  he  boldly  set  the  sign  of  ten,  and  thus 
niade  it  appear  that  he,  the  fourteenth  prince,  was 
the  one  nominated.  He  possessed  himself  of  the 
sceptre,  and  ordered  his  brother  to  be  arrested  and 
imprisoned  in  a  place  which  is  standing  to  this  day, 
four  leagues  to  the  north  of  Peking,  in  which  it  is 
said  that  he  died."  On  the  18th  October,  1813,  as 
the  last  emperor,  Keaking,  was  about  to  enter  Pe- 
king, on  his  return  from  the  summer  excursion  to 
Je-ho,  (the  Hot  Springs,  about  one  hundred  miles 
northeast  of  the  capital,)  a  party  of  conspirators  en- 
tered the  imperial  palace,  and  kept  possession  of  a 
part  of  it  for  some  time.  The  present  emperor,  who 
was  only  his  second  son,  is  said  to  have  owed  his 
elevation  to  the  good  conduct  he  displayed  on  this 
occasion.  He  shot  two  of  the  rebels,  and  assisted 
to  intimidate  the  remainder  of  those  who  had  pene- 
trated within  the  precincts  of  the  palace. 

The  first  intimation  of  the  preceding  occurrence 
was  conveyed  in  a  proclamation  from  the  emperor, 
of  which  the  following  is  an  extract :  "  Eighteen 
years  have  elapsed  since,  possessed  of  only  inferior 
virtue,  I  looked  up,  and  received  with  profound  ven- 
eration the  throne  of  my  imperial  father;  since 
which  I  dared  not  resign  myself  to  ease,  or  neglect 
the  affairs  of  government.  I  had  but  just  ascended 
the  throne,  when  the  sect  of  the  White  Lily  seduced 
into  a  state  of  confusion  four  provinces,  and  the  peo- 
ple suffered  more  than  I  can  bear  to  express.  1  or- 
dered my  generals  to  proceed  against  them,  and, 
after  a  protracted  conflict,  reduced  them  to  submis- 
Hh2 


366  THE    CHINESE. 

sion.  1  then  hoped  that  with  my  children  (the  peo- 
ple) I  should  have  enjoyed  increasing  happiness  and 
repose.  On  the  6th  of  the  8th  moon,  the  sect  of 
Tien-ly,  (celestial  reason,)  a  band  of  vagabonds,  sud- 
denly created  disorder,  and  caused  much  injury,  ex- 
tending from  the  district  of  Chang-yuen  in  Pechele 
to  that  of  Tsaou  in  Shantong.  I  hastened  to  direct 
Wun,  the  viceroy,  to  lead  forth  an  army  to  exter- 
minate them,  and  restore  peace.  This  aflfair,  hov^r- 
ever,  still  existed  at  the  distance  of  one  hundred 
leagues  from  Peking;  but,  suddenly,  on  the  15th  of 
the  9th  moon,  rebellion  arose  under  ray  own  arm — 
the  calamity  sprung  up  in  my  own  house.  A  ban- 
ditti of  upward  of  seventy  men,  of  the  sect  Tien-ly, 
violated  the  prohibited  gate,  and  entered  withinside  ; 
they  wounded  the  guard,  and  rushed  into  the  inner 
palace.  Four  rebels  were  seized  and  bound  ;  three 
others  ascended  the  wall  with  a  flag.  My  imperial 
second  son  seized  a  matchlock  and  shot  two  o-f 
them  ;  my  nephew  killed  the  third.  For  this  deliv- 
erance I  am  indebted  to  the  energies  of  my  second 
son." 

About  eight  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Peking  are 
the  gardens,  or  rather  the  park,  of  Yuen-ming-yuen, 
which  Mr.  Barrow  (who  spent  his  time  between  that 
place  and  Peking)  estimates  at  an  extent  of  twelve 
square  miles.  As  the  face  of  the  country  on  this 
side  of  Peking  begins  to  rise  towards  the  Great 
Wall,  the  diversity  of  hill  and  dale  has  afforded  some 
natural  facilities  for  embellishment,  which  have  been 
improved  by  art.  According  to  the  description  of 
the  forementioned  writer,  the  landscape  is  diversi- 
fied with  woodlands  and  lawns,  among  which  are 
numerous  canals,  rivulets,  and  sheets  of  water,  the 
banks  of  which  have  been  thrown  up  in  an  appa- 
rently fortuitous  manner  in  imitation  of  the  free 
hand  of  nature.  Some  parts  are  cultivated,  and 
others  purposely  left  wild :  and  wherever  pleasure- 
houses  are  erected,  the  views  appears  to  have  been 


SCENE    IN    LAST    EMBASSY.  367 

studied.  It  is  said  that  within  the  enclosure  of 
these  gardens  there  exist  no  less  than  thirty  distinct 
places  of  residence  for  the  emperor  and  his  nu- 
merous suite  of  ministers,  eunuchs,  and  servants, 
each  constituting  a  considerable  village.  The  prin- 
cipal hall  of  audience,  seen  by  Mr.  Barrow,  stood 
upon  a  platform  of  granite  four  feet  high,  and  was 
surrounded  by  a  sort  of  peristyle  of  large  wooden 
columns,  which  supported  the  roof.  The  length  of 
the  hall  within  was  one  hundred  and  ten  feet,  the 
breadth  forty-two,  and  the  height  twenty.  The 
floor  was  paved  with  slabs  of  gray  marble  laid 
checkerwise,  and  the  throne,  made  entirely  of  carved 
wood,  placed  in  a  recess.  The  only  furniture  of 
the  hall  were  "  a  pair  of  brass  kettle  drums,  two 
large  paintings,  two  pairs  of  ancient  blue  porcelain 
vases,  a  few  volumes  of  manuscripts,  and  a  table 
placed  at  one  end  of  the  hall,  on  which  stood  an  old 
English  chimney  clock,  made  in  the  seventeenth 
century." 

It  was  at  a  place  called  Hae-tien,  in  the  immedi- 
ate vicinity  of  these  gardens,  that  the  strange  scene 
occurred  which  terminated  in  the  dismissal  of  the 
embassy  of  1816.  On  his  arrival  there,  about  day- 
light in  the  morning,  with  the  commissioners  and  a 
few  other  gentlemen,  the  ambassador  was  drawn  to 
one  of  the  emperor's  temporary  residences  by  an  in- 
vitation from  the  Duke  Ho,  as  he  was  called,  the 
imperial  relative  charged  with  the  conduct  of  the  ne- 
gotiations. After  passing  through  an  open  court, 
where  were  assembled  a  vast  number  of  mandarins 
in  their  dresses  of  ceremony,  they  were  shown  into 
a  wretched  room,  and  soon  encompassed  by  a  well- 
dressed  crowd,  among  whom  were  princes  of  the 
blood  by  dozens,  wearing  yellow  girdles.  With  a 
childish  and  unmannerly  curiosity,  consistent  enough 
with  the  idle  and  disorderly  life  which  many  of  them 
are  said  to  lead,  they  examined  the  persons  and 
dress  of  the  gentlemen  without  ceremony;  while 


368  THE    CHINESE. 

these,  tired  with  their  sleepless  journey,  and  dis- 
gusted at  the  behaviour  of  the  celestials,  turned 
their  backs  upon  them,  and  laid  themselves  down  to 
rest.  Duke  Ho  soon  appeared,  and  surprised  the 
ambassador  by  urging  him  to  proceed  directly  to  an 
audience  of  the  emperor,  who  was  waiting  for  him. 
His  lordship  in  vain  remonstrated  that  to-morrow 
had  been  fixed  for  the  first  audience  and  that  tired 
and  dusty  as  they  all  were  at  present,  it  would  be 
worthy  neither  of  the  emperor  nor  himself  to  wait 
on  his  majesty  in  a  manner  so  unprepared.  He 
urged,  too,  that  he  was  unwell,  and  required  imme- 
diate rest.  Duke  Ho  became  more  and  more  press- 
ing, and  at  length  forgot  himself  so  far  as  to  grasp 
the  ambassador's  arm  violently,  and  one  of  the 
others  stepped  up  at  the  same  time.  His  lordship 
immediately  shook  them  off,  and  the  gentlemen 
crowded  about  him ;  while  the  highest  indignation 
was  expressed  at  such  treatment,  and  a  determined 
resolution  to  proceed  to  no  audience  this  morning. 
The  ambassador  at  length  retired,  with  the  appear- 
ance of  satisfaction,  on  the  part  of  Duke  Ho,  that  the 
audience  should  take  place  to-morrow.  There  is 
every  reason,  however,  to  suppose  that  this  person 
had  been  largely  bribed  by  the  heads  of  the  Canton 
local  government  to  frustrate  the  views  of  the  em- 
bassy, and  prevent  an  audience  of  the  emperor. 
The  mission,  at  least,  was  on  its  way  back  in  the 
afternoon  of  the  same  day. 

The  previous  embassy  of  Lord  Macartney,  in  1793, 
attended  the  emperor's  court  at  Je-ho,  (sometimes 
written  Zhehol,)  or  "  the  Hot  Springs,"  at  some  dis- 
tance north  of  the  Great  Wall,  in  Manchow  Tartary. 
The  elevation  of  this  place,  at  some  thousand  feet 
above  the  plain  in  which  Peking  is  situated,  renders 
it  a  cool  summer  retreat  during  the  excessive  heats 
which  prevail  at  the  capital.  The  gardens  and  resi- 
dences of  the  emperor,  though  considerable,  are  de- 
scribed as  inferior  in  extent  to  those  of  Yuen-ming- 


IMPERIAL    RELATIVES.  369 

yuen.  Still,  however,  the  accommodation  of  such  a 
suite  as  the  sovereign  carries  with  him  requires  a 
town  in  itself.  Peking,  in  fact,  is  chiefly  supported 
throughout  its  vast  bounds  by  the  residence  of  the 
court  and  the  supreme  government.  Being  neither 
a  seaport,  nor  a  place  naturally  suited  to  inland 
trade  and  manufactures,  it  derives  nearly  its  whole 
importance  from  being  the  dwelling-place  of  the 
"  Son  of  Heaven." 

His  vast  establishments  are  chiefly  supported  by 
the  surplus  revenue,  both  in  money  and  stores,  re- 
mitted by  way  of  the  grand  canal  from  the  prov- 
inces. An  imperial  relative  of  the  first  rank  re- 
ceives, according  to  P.  Serra,*  10,000  taels  annually 
from  the  exchequer,  with  a  large  allowance  of  rice, 
and  as  many  as  three  hundred  and  more  servants. 
As  the  multiplication  of  these  expensive  idlers  would 
soon  ruin  the  government,  their  rank  descends  by 
one  degree  in  each  generation,  until  after  five  de- 
scents their  heirs  retain  the  simple  privilege  of 
wearing  the  yellow  girdle,  with  a  bare  subsistence. 
From  this  degradation  a  few  have  been  excepted  by 
especial  favour,  as  it  happened  to  a  grandson  of  Ki- 
en-loong,  to  whom  that  emperor  granted  the  first 
grade  for  ten  lives.  The  expense  to  the  state  of  a 
wang  of  the  first  rank  is  about  60,000  taels,  or 
20,000/.  annually,  and  this  diminishes  through  the 
several  grades  down  to  the  simple  inheritors  of  the 
yellow  girdle,  who  receive  only  three  taels  a  month, 
and  two  sacks  of  rice.  But  they  are  allowed  100 
taels  when  they  marry,  and  120  for  a  funeral ;  from 
which  (says  Serra)  they  take  occasion  to  maltreat 
their  wives,  because,  when  they  have  killed  one, 
they  receive  the  allowance  for  her  interment,  as 
well  as  the  dowry  of  the  new  wife,  whom  they  take 
immediately  !  In  1825,  appeared  the  following  or- 
der from  the  emperor:    "The  Wang   (or  regulus) 

*  Royal  Asiat.  Trans.,  vol.  iii. 


370  THE    CHINESE. 

Chunshan  has  presented  to  us  a  petition,  entreating 
our  imperial  favour  in  the  advance  of  some  years' 
salaries,  wherewithal  he  may  be  enabled  to  repair  the 
tombs  of  his  family.  We  permit  to  be  advanced  to 
him  the  amount  of  his  money  allowances  for  ten 
years  ensuing,  and  direct  that  his  pay  be  annually 
deducted  until  the  whole  shall  be  repaid."  This 
title  of  iva7ig  is  the  one  by  which  the  Chinese  em- 
peror styles  the  King-  of  England,  whose  repre- 
sentative (consistently  enough  with  such  a  broad 
assumption)  is  expected  to  beat  his  head  nine  times 
against  the  ground,  on  being  admitted  to  the  pres- 
ence of  the  universal  sovereign. 

It  is  at  Peking  chiefly,  and  in  its  neighbourhood, 
that  the  privileges  of  Tartars,  in  contradistinction  to 
Chinese,  are  most  broadly  marked,  and  most  openly 
asserted.  It  must  be  sufficiently  clear  to  a  sagacious 
government,  as  that  of  the  Manchows  has  always 
proved  itself,  that,  being  so  enormously  outnum- 
bered by  the  original  inhabitants  of  China,  the  wisest 
policy  must  be  to  display  a  tolerable  partialitj'^  in 
the  administration  of  the  provinces,  and  especially 
the  distant  ones.  An  examination  of  the  Chinese 
red  book  gave  the  following  results.  Of  the  eight 
viceroys,  having  each  two  provinces,  or  one  of  the 
largest,  under  his  sway,  there  are  no  less  than  six 
Chinese  ;  and  of  ihe  fifteen  lieutenant  governors,  ten 
are  Chinese.  On  the  other  hand,  the  highest  and 
most  responsible  mihtary  commands  are  always  in- 
trusted to  Manchows.  The  probability  is,  that  the 
genius  of  the  Chinese  is  better  adapted  to  fitting 
themselves  for.  civil  offices,  the  qualification  for 
vehich  is  an  adequate  proficiency  in  that  learning, 
which  is  entirely  founded  on  the  ancient  literature 
of  the  country;  while,  for  military  commands,  the 
Manchows  are  not  only  more  likely  to  prove  faith- 
ful to  the  present  dynasty,  but  at  the  same  time  are 
better  suited  by  nature  and  education.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  capital,  very  distinct  ideas  of  local 


POLICE    OF    PEKING.  371 

claims  and  jurisdictions  appear  to  be  entertained  by 
the  Tartars.  When  Lord  Macartney  had  passed  just 
to  the  north  of  the  Great  Wall,  on  his  way  to  Je-ho, 
one  of  the  attendants,  who  was  a  Tartar,  having 
been  ordered  for  punishment  by  a  Chinese  manda- 
rin, immediately  resisted  with  great  vehemence,  ex- 
claiming against  the  authority  of  the  latter  on  that 
side  of  the  national  barrier. 

The  strict  system  of  police,  by  which  such  an  im- 
mense population  is  kept  in  due  order,  is  essentially 
the  same  through  the  different  cities  and  towns  of 
the  empire.  Its  efficiency  arises  in  a  great  measure 
from  the  principle  of  responsibility,  which  forms  so 
marked  a  feature  of  Chinese  rule,  and  is  carried 
among  them  to  an  extent  quite  beyond  our  notions 
of  equity.  Every  town  is  divided  into  tithings  of 
ten  houses,  and  these  are  combined  into  wards  of 
one  hundred ;  or,  as  the  Chinese  term  it,  "  ten 
houses  make  a  Aea,  ten  kea  make  a /»aow,"  or  hun- 
dred. The  magistrate  is  responsible  for  his  whole 
district,  the  hundreder  and  tithingman  each  for  his 
respective  charge,  and  the  householder  for  the  con- 
duct of  his  family.  From  this  gradation  of  authority 
all  strangers  and  foreigners  are  rigidly  excluded. 
So  summary  is  the  mode  in  which  the  objects  of  the 
police  are  effected,  that  it  is  no  light  matter  to  be 
once  in  their  hands.  The  Chinese  emphatically  ex- 
press their  sense  of  this  unfortunate  condition,  by 
the  popular  phrase,  "  The  meat  is  on  the  chopping- 
block." 

The  gates  of  all  Chinese  towns  are  shut  soon 
after  it  is  dark,  when  the  first  watch  is  sounded  by 
a  huge  bell,  or  drum,  in  some  commanding  station. 
At  the  end  of  every  principal  street  is  a  strong  bar- 
rier of  timber,  which  is  closed  at  the  same  time 
with  the  principal  gates.  These  are  only  opened  to 
such  as  can  give  a  satisfactory  reason  for  their  being 
allowed  to  pass,  or  for  being  out  at  night ;  as,  for 
instance,  to  call  a  midwife  on  a  sudden  emergency. 


372  TIIE    CHINESE. 

Every  one  is  expected  to  carry  a  lantern,  and  is 
punished  for  being  found  without  it.  When  the 
particular  watch  of  the  night  has  been  indicated  by 
a  certain  number  of  strokes  on  the  drum  or  bell  at 
the  principal  station,  this  is  answered  by  all  the 
rest ;  and  a  police  soldier  walks  from  one  corps  de 
garde  to  another,  repeating  the  number  of  the  watch 
(and  thereby  marking  the  time  of  night)  by  striking 
two  hollow  bamboos  together. 

The  great  jealousy  wiih  which  the  personal  safe- 
ty of  the  emperor  is  provided  for,  at  Peking,  renders 
the  police  very  strict  in  regard  to  all  access  to  the 
imperial  palace  and  its  neighbourhood.  It  has  been 
well  observed,  that  the  subjects  of  a  despot  are  well 
revenged  by  the  fears  in  which  such  regulations  ori- 
ginate. According  to  the  penal  code,  "  In  all  cases 
of  persons,  who  have  lived  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  imperial  city,  being  condemned  to  die  by  the 
sentence  of  the  law,  their  families,  and  all  persons 
whatsoever  who  resided  under  the  same  roof  with 
them,  shall  remove  forthwith."  The  principal  duty 
of  the  mihtary  of  China  is  to  perform  the  office  of  a 
police  ;  and  it  must  be  admitted  that,  by  the  aid  of 
the  unrelenting  system  of  responsibility,  there  is  no 
country  in  the  world  in  which  a  more  efficient  police 
exists  than  there.  Not  being  very  scrupulous  as  to 
the  means,  the  government  generally  contrives  in 
some  way  or  other  to  accomplish  its  ends ;  and  it 
occasionally  makes  up  for  its  own  weakness  by  the 
policy  of  it  measures.  When  the  pirates  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  Tartar  dynasty  rav- 
aged the  coasts  of  the  maritime  provinces,  the  want 
of  a  force  to  oppose  them  on  the  water  rendered  ac- 
tive measures  impossible.  The  government,  there- 
fore, offered  no  active  resistance ;  but  merely 
obliged  the  inhabitants  of  the  coast  to  move  thirty 
ly,  or  about  three  leagues,  inland — a  plan  which 
proved  perfectly  successful. 

European  residents  in  China  have  generally  found 


CASE  OF  A  FRENCH  CREW.      373 

that  their  property  has  been  as  secure  from  violent 
invasion  as  it  could  be  in  any  other  country  of  the 
world;  and  in  one  or  two  instances,  where  flagrant 
acts  of  robbery  combined  with  murder  have  oc- 
curred, the  efficiency  of  the  police  has  proved,  in  a 
very  signal  and  remarkable  manner,  that  the  govern- 
ment was  not  only  willing,  but  able  to  do  them 
summary  justice.  In  1816,  the  American  ship  Wa- 
bash, having  opium  on  board,  came  to  anchor  off 
Macao,  and  being  manned  by  a  very  small  number 
of  hands,  was  suddenly  carried  by  a  boatful  of 
desperate  Chinese,  who,  coming  on  board  under 
pretence  of  offering  their  services  as  pilots,  stabbed 
those  who  were  on  deck,  or  forced  them  into  the 
water ;  and  then,  confining  the  remainder  of  the 
crew  to  the  forepart  of  the  vessel,  plundered  her  of 
all  the  opium.  When  the  fact  was  represented  to 
the  local  government,  whose  horror  of  piratical  vio- 
lence is  extreme,  such  prompt  and  effective  meas- 
ures were  taken  for  the  discovery  of  the  ruffians, 
that  they  were  most  of  them  caught  and  condemned 
to  death,  and  their  heads  exposed  in  cages  on  the 
rocks  near  Macao,  as  a  warning  to  others. 

But  the  case  of  the  French  ship  Navigateur,  in 
1828,  was  still  more  remarkable,  and  may  be  given 
nearly  from  the  relation  of  M.  Laplace,  captain  of 
the  eighteen  gun  corvette  La  Favourite,  whose  ob- 
servations on  the  Chinese  we  have  had  occasion 
to  quote  in  another  place.  The  Navigateur,  a  mer- 
chantman, was  compelled  by  stress  of  weather  to 
put  into  Touron  Bay  on  the  coast  of  Cochin  China. 
The  disabled  state  of  the  ship,  the  difficulty  of  ef- 
fecting the  necessary  repairs,  and  the  well-known 
unfriendhness  of  the  local  authorities,  forced  the 
captain  and  crew  to  the  necessity  of  selling  her 
to  the  King  of  Cochin  China,  and  embarking  them- 
selves with  their  most  valuable  effects  on  board  a 
Chinese  junk,  which  was  engaged  to  carry  them  to 
Macao.  The  voyage  was  short,  but  still  long 
Vol..  I.— Ii 


374  THE    CHINESE. 

enough  to  enable  the  crew  of  the  junk  to  conceive 
and  execute  a  dreadful  conspiracy  against  the 
Frenchmen.  It  was  in  vain  that  one  of  the  oldest 
of  the  Chinese  endeavoured  by  signs  to  draw  the 
attention  of  the  French  captain  to  the  danger  that 
threatened  him;  the  latter  had  contented  himself 
vv^ith  making  one  or  two  of  his  sailors  keep  watch 
by  day,  as  well  as  during  the  night ;  but  this  charge 
w^as  the  more  negligently  executed,  inasmuch  as 
most  of  the  people,  in  consequence  of  their  previ- 
ous sufferings,  had  to  contend  with  fever  or  dys- 
entery. 

The  junk  was  already  within  sight  of  the  great 
Ladrone  island,  the  mark  by  which  Macao  is  made 
in  the  southerly  monsoon,  and  the  Chinese  passen- 
gers disembarked  at  once  into  boats,  with  an  eager- 
ness which  ought  to  have  roused  the  suspicions  of 
the  Europeans,  had  they  not  been  blinded  by  the 
most  imprudent  conHdence.  The  night  passed 
quietly,  and  the  dawning  light  seemed  to  promise  a 
happy  landing  to  the  Frenchmen;  but  it  was  des- 
tined to  witness  their  massacre.  These  unfortunate 
men,  the  greater  number  still  asleep,  were  des- 
patched with  hatchets  and  knives  by  the  crew  of 
the  junk ;  and  their  captain,  assailed  by  the  assas- 
sins in  the  narrow  cabin  which  he  occupied  with 
his  mates,  after  killing  several  of  the  Chinese, 
fell  himself  the  last.  One  seaman,  however  still 
remained,  who,  armed  with  an  iron  bar,  con- 
tinued to  make  a  desperate  resistance,  although 
badly  wounded  in  the  head.  Having  reached  the 
deck  of  the  vessel,  almost  overcome  as  he  was  in 
this  unequal  conflict,  he  leaped  into  the  sea,  and 
appeared  in  this  manner  to  ensure,  by  his  certain 
death,  impunity  to  the  murderers. 

He  contrived,  notwithstanding,  to  swim  to  the 
nearest  fishing  boat,  but  he  was  denied  succour,  with 
the  usual  selfish  prudence  of  the  Chinese ;  another 


MURDERERS    CONDEMNED.  375 

boat,  however,  afterward  received  him  on  board,  and 
landed  him  by  night  on  the  shore  at  Macao.  Sick 
and  wounded  as  he  was,  the  poor  man  wandered 
unknown  for  some  time  about  the  streets,  but  at 
length  discovered  the  abode  of  the  French  mission- 
aries, who  with  their  ready  humanity  relieved  him 
at  once  from  his  immediate  wants.  In  the  mean 
while,  the  French  consul  had  arrived  from  Canton, 
and  the  affair  being  brought  by  him  to  the  notice 
of  the  Portuguese  authorities  at  Macao,  was 
placed  by  them  in  the  hands  of  the  Chinese  man- 
darins. By  means  of  the  information  obtained  from 
the  French  sailor,  the  Chinese  passengers  who  had 
<juitted  the  junk  previous  to  the  massacre,  and 
repaired  in  all  haste  to  their  respective  homes, 
were  summoned  to  Canton.  From  them  was  ob- 
tained a  full  evidence  as  to  the  criminals,  and  their 
design ;  and  a  strict  embargo  was  at  once  laid  on 
all  the  vessels  within  the  ports  of  Canton  and  the 
neighbouring  province  of  Fokien. 

The  assassins  being  soon  arrested  in  their  junk, 
were  put  into  iron  cages  and  conveyed  to  Canton 
for  trial  and  judgment.  On  their  arrival  there,  it 
was  ordained  by  the  emperor's  strict  order,  that  the 
trial  and  punishment  should  take  place  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Europeans  at  that  place.  Among  the 
English  spectators  was  the  interpreter  of  the  East 
India  Company,  Dr.  Morrison,  the  author  of  the 
Chinese  dictionary,  whose  labours  have  been  so 
useful  towards  illustrating  the  literature  of  the  coun- 
try, and  who  was  destined  on  this  occasion  to  ex- 
perience a  very  gratifying  reward  for  his  pains  in 
acquiring  the  language.  His  attention  having  been 
attracted  by  the  loud  complaints  of  an  old  man,  who, 
like  the  others,  was  shut  up  in  a  cage  with  iron  bars, 
and  who,  in  protesting  his  innocence,  called  for  the 
French  sailor  whose  life  he  had  contributed  to  save, 
Dr.   Morrison   approached  the  old    man's   prison, 


376  THE    CHINESE. 

heard  what  he  had  to  say,  and  promised  him  his  as- 
sistance with  the  judges.  In  a  word,  accompanied 
by  the  Frenchman,  he  presented  himself  before  the 
mandarins,  pleaded  the  cause  of  his  client,  and 
called  to  their  recollection  that  maxim  of  Chinese 
law,  and  of  humanity  in  general,  that  "  it  is  better 
to  let  even  the  guilty  escape,  than  to  punish  the  in- 
nocent." He  obtained  the  consent  of  the  court  that 
the  sailor  should  be  confronted  with  the  accused, 
and  these,  on  the  first  sight  of  each  other,  immedi- 
ately embraced  and  shed  tears,  to  the  great  interest 
and  sympathy  of  the  audience.  The  judges  them- 
selves yielded  to  the  general  sentiment,  and  at  once 
absolved  the  old  man.  Out  of  twenty-four  prison- 
ers, seventeen  were  condemned  and  decapitated  at 
once,  and  their  chief  put  to  a  lingering  death  in  the 
presence  of  the^Europeans. 

Captain  Laplace  has  made  a  great  mistake  in  sup- 
posing that,  when  Dr.  Morrison  enunciated  to  the 
mandarins  that  merciful  and  wise  maxim  which  con- 
tributed to  save  the  man's  life,  he  told  them  any- 
thing that  they  had  never  before  heard.  We  could 
prove  to  him,  by  chapter  and  verse,  that  the  precept 
is  perfectly  well  known  to  the  Chinese,  however 
grossly  it  may  have  been  violated  by  them  in  sev- 
eral cases  where  Europeans  have  unintentionally 
caused  the  death  of  natives.  It  is,  in  fact,  this 
knowledge  of  what  is  right  in  criminal  practice,  that 
makes  the  conduct  of  the  local  government  towards 
foreign  homicides  so  perfectly  unjustifiable,  and 
renders  it  not  only  excusable,  but  imperative  in  Eu- 
ropeans to  resist  the  execution,  not  of  law,  but  of 
illegality.  Were  they  treated  like  natives  on  these 
occasions,  and  according  to  the  distinct  provisions 
of  the  Chinese  Penal  Code,  it  might  be  difficult  to 
make  out  a  right  to  oppose  the  laws  of  the  country 
in  which  they  sojourn.  But,  as  a  just  and  equal  ad- 
ministration of  those  laws  to  natives  and  foreigners 
must  always  be  the  necessary  condition  of  submis- 


NON-SUBMISSION.  377 

sion  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  the  absurd  injustice 
and  partiality  of  the  local  government  have  de- 
prived it  of  the  right  to  complain,  if  Europeans,  in 
cases  of  accidental  homicide,  refuse  to  deliver  up 
their  countrymen  to  be  strangled  without  a  trial,  or 
with  only  the  mockery  of  one.* 

*  See  note  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 
Ii2 


378  THE    CHINESE. 


NOTE  ON  HOMICIDES  AT  CANTON. 

The  following  observations  are  prefaced  by  the 
extracts  here  subjoined  : — 

"  With  reference  to  the  important  question  which 
you  recommend  to  my  consideration,  the  expedi- 
ency of  establishing  a  judicial  tribunal  of  our  own  at 
Canton,  for  the  punishment  of  offenders^— the  evils 
of  the  present  system  are,  I  confess,  great  and  un- 
deniable. In  order  to  save  the  innocent,  we  are 
compelled  to  do  little  less  than  systematically  to 
screen  the  guilty ;  yet  the  establishment  of  a  crim- 
inal court  within  the  limits  of  a  foreign  state,  and 
without  the  sanction  of  that  state,  (for  the  Chinese, 
though  they  would  authorize  you  to  convict,  would 
never,  I  apprehend,  sanction  your  right  to  acquit,) 
is  such  an  anomaly  in  legislation,  that  a  very  strong 
case  of  expediency  must  be  made  out  before  it  would 
be  listened  to." 

*  *  *  "  In  my  last  letter,  I  just  touched  upon  the 
subject  you  proposed  to  me,  of  the  invention  of  a 
remedy  for  the  very  unsatisfactory  state  of  the  law, 
as  applicable  to  your  situation  in  China,  in  cases  of 
homicide.  The  English  laws  are  silent  on  the 
point,  and  the  Chinese  laws  (or  rather  practice) 
speak  a  language  to  which  you  cannot  either  in  hon- 
our or  in  policy  entirely  submit.  The  consequence 
is,  that  in  order  to  protect  the  innocent,  you  are 
often  obhged  to  screen  the  guilty  ;  the  trade  is  dis- 
turbed, and  crimes  escape  unpunished.  I  have  thus 
fully  acknowledged  the  evil,  yet  I  cannot,  I  confess, 
quite  see  my  way  to  a  remedy.  If  it  were  likely 
that  the  Chinese  might  be  prevailed  on  to  sanction 
the  establishment  of  a  judicial  court  of  our  own  at 
Canton,  1  think  it  possible  that  such  a  measure, 
though  a  very  new  and  singular  case,  might  be 
brought  about :  but  it  would  be  obviously  worse  than 
useless  if  the  Chinese  government  did  not  agree  to 


NOTE    ON    HOMICIDES.  379 

sanction  its  decisions,  which,  when  their  own  sub- 
jects are  concerned,  I  cannot  help  looking  on  as 
hopeless.  I  wish,  however,  you  would  digest  this 
matter  in  your  mind  ;  and  if  you  should  be  able  to 
sketch  any  plan  of  a  remedy  for  the  existing  abuse, 
I  hope  you  will  send  it  me,  for  the  information  of 
.the  President  of  the  Board  of  Control.  If  ever  pri- 
vate traders  from  England  should  be  admitted  to 
-compete  in  the  tea  trade  at  Canton  with  the  com- 
pany, the  evil  would  of  course  increase,  and  the 
remedy  become  more  needful." 

The  above  was  the  view  taken  of  this  question 
some  years  since,  by  a  high  authority,  in  reply  to  a 
written  application.  There  are,  perhaps,  some  rea- 
sons for  attaching  less  weight  to  the  apprehended 
opposition  on  the  Chinese  side.  Not  to  mention  the 
Dutch,  of  whom  the  same  is  recorded  long  since,  the 
Portuguese  very  lately  both  tried  and  executed  their 
man  themselves  ;  and,  according  to  Chinese  notions, 
(on  which  of  course  this  part  of  the  difiiculty  entirely 
hinges,)  the  Portuguese  at  Macao  are  not  at  all  less 
dependant  on  Chinese  law  than  we  at  Canton.  The 
Chinese  would  therefore  be  as  ready  to  allow  our 
right  to  condemn  real  murderers,  onboard  our  ships, 
as  they  are  to  allow  the  Portuguese  at  Macao ;  and 
if  they  saw  that  we  were  willing  and  ready  to  bring 
real  murderers  to  condign  punishment,  they  would 
not  be  long  in  allowing  onr  right  to  acquit  the  inno- 
cent. It  is  the  feeling  of  jealousy  and  resentment, 
(which  we  can  hardly  wonder  at,)  arising  from  the 
almost  certain  escape,  under  the  present  system,  of 
real  criminals,  that  makes  them  so  anxious  to  get 
hold  of  all  persons  indiscriminately,  and  in  fact 
causes  them  to  act  more  from  a  motive  of  revenge 
than  with  a  view  to  promoting  the  end's  of  substan- 
tial justice.  This  is  a  very  barbarous  and  shocking- 
state  of  things,  little  better  on  our  side  than  on 
theirs,  and  it  seems  the  duty  of  a  great  and  civilized 
state,  like  England,  to  provide  a  remedy. 


380  THE    CHINESE. 

["From  what  foreigners,"  said  Dr.  Morrison. 
"  have  witnessed  in  cases  of  manslaughter,  they 
have  inferred  that  the  Chinese  government  acted 
rather  from  a  spirit  of  revenge  than  according  to  law. 
That  this  is  true,  appears  from  a  state  paper,  quoted 
in  the  34th  section  of  the  Chinese  Penal  Code. 
During  the  13th  year  of  Kien-loong,  A.D.  1749,  the 
then  governor  of  Canton  reported  to  the  emperor 
that  he  had  tried  some  Macao  foreigners  who  caused 
the  death  of  two  Chinese,*  and  having  sentenced 
them  (through  their  own  authorities)  to  be  bastina- 
doed and  transported,  had  to  request  that,  according 
to  foreign  laws,  they  might  be  sent  to  Temwan — De- 
maun.  To  this  the  emperor  replied,  that  the  gov- 
ernor had  managed  very  erroneously ;  that  he  should 
have  required  life  for  life.  '  If,'  it  was  added,  '  you 
quote  only  our  native  laws,  and  according  to  them, 
sentence  to  the  bastinado  and  transportation,  then 
the  fierce  and  unruly  dispositions  of  the  foreigners 
will  cease  to  be  awed.'  The  emperor  thus  declared 
(and  his  imperial  decision  is  reprinted  with  every 
new  edition  of  the  laws)  that  the  native  law  alone 
is  not  to  be  the  guide  of  the  local  government  when 
foreigners  cause  the  death  of  natives.  '  It  is  incum- 
bent to  have  life  for  life,'  in  order  to  frighten  and 
repress  the  barbarians."] 

The  propriety,  and  indeed  necessity,  of  non-sub- 
mission to  the  Chinese  law,  as  suspended  or  per- 
verted, and  not  administered  towards  strangers,  is 
easily  made  out.  Though  it  be  a  principle  obviously 
founded  in  natural  justice,  and  has  therefore  been 
universally  acknowledged  as  an  established  maxim 
of  the  law'  of  nations,  "  that  foreigners  shall  be 
amenable  to  the  laws  of  the  country  in  which  they 
happen  to  reside,"  still  this  rule  (not  to  mention 
that  China  subscribes  to  no  international  code  what- 
ever) must  always  have  its  conditions.     Protection 

*  The  European  account  is,  that  two  soldiers  murdered  two 
Chinese,  and  were  falsely  represented  as  insane. 


NOTE   ON    HOMICIDES.  381 

from,  and  submission  to,  local  laws  must,  like  every 
other  right  and  obligation,  be  strictly  reciprocal; 
and  the  state  that  denies  to  strangers  an  equal  ad- 
ministration of  its  laws  with  natives,  seems  to  for- 
feit its  claim  on  their  submission.  This  point  has 
been  singularly  illustrated  in  practice  (as  appears 
from  Mr.  Macfarlane's  work)  in  the  relations  of  Eu- 
ropean states  with  Turkey.  "  For  many  years,  no 
such  thing  as  an  execution  of  Franks  by  Turkish 
law  has  been  seen  in  the  Levant,  where  offenders 
are  given  over  to  their  respective  consuls,"  &c.  It 
is  stated  that  this  established  immunity  had  been  the 
result  of  the  barbarity  and  injustice  practised  by  the 
Turks  towards  all  Franks  accused  of  crimes  ;  and  it 
may  easily  be  proved  from  repeated  experience,  that 
reasons  for  the  same  exist  (in  an  aggravated  degree) 
in  our  relations  with  the  Chinese. 

We  are  fairly  in  possession  of  the  fact,  that  they 
clearly  understand  the  distinctions  between  mali- 
cious^ excusable^  m\^  justifiable  homicide ;  and  that  in 
the  case  of  their  own  subjects,  the  law  distinguishes 
between — 

1.  Killing  with  an  intention ; 

2.  Killing  by  pure  accident ;  and, 

3.  Killing  in  lawful  self-defence,  or  in  the  exe- 

cution of  one's  duty. 
Although,  according  to  an  antiquated  error  in  legis- 
lation, homicide  is  sometimes  treated  by  them  as  a 
private,  rather  than  as  a  public  wrong,  (being  made 
redeemable  by  a  fine  to  the  relations  of  the  de- 
ceased,) yet  in  the  administration  of  the  law  towards 
natives,  the  above  three  distinctions  are  clearly  ob- 
served in  aggravation  or  mitigation  of  the  particular 
offence.     Thus  (Leu-lee,  6th  Div.  2d  B.)— 

1.  In  a  conspiracy  to  kill,  all  those  who  actually 
contribute  to  the  perpetration  of  the  offence  are 
equally  punished  with  death,  though  there  is  the  dif-, 
ference  between  beheading  and  strangling  for  the 
principals  and  accessaries.    Even  where  the  wounds 


382  THE    CHINESE. 

inflicted  do  not  prove  mortal,  the  principal  suffers 
death. 

2.  Killing  by  -pure  accident,  that  is,  where  there 
was  not  any  previous  knowledge  of  the  probable  con- 
sequences, is  redeemable  by  a  fine  of  about  twelve 
taels  to  the  relations  of  the  deceased. 

3.  A  householder  killing  a  burglarious  intruder, 
and  a  policeman  killing  a  thief  in  taking  him,  are 
not  punished  at  all. 

The  Chinese  principle,  with  regard  to  the  punish- 
ment of  crime,  is  precisely  the  same  as  ours  :  "  Bet- 
ter let  the  guilty  escape,  than  put  the  innocent  to 
death."  How  strangely  this  contrasts  with  their 
conduct  to  foreigners  !  Their  ancient  books  say  of 
capital  punishment,  "  Thrice  be  it  deferred ;"  and 
such  is  the  actual  practice  at  the  present  day ;  for 
the  local  magistrate  sends  the  case  to  the  provincial 
judge,  the  provincial  judge  to  the  criminal  board, 
and  the  criminal  board  to  the  emperor.  The  Chi- 
nese government  would  pretend  that  foreigners  are 
tried  and  sentenced  according  to  the  law ;  but  we 
know  from  experience  that  every  legal  safeguard, 
provided  for  the  native,  is  dispensed  with  in  the  case 
of  the  stranger.  The  benefit  of  the  delay  arising 
from  an  appeal  to  the  emperor  was  expressly  taken 
away  hom  foreign  homicides  in  1753,  at  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Canton  government.  On  this 
plain  and  intelligible  ground  we  may  rest  the  ne- 
cessity, 1st,  of  non-submission  to  Chinese  punish- 
ment ;  and,  2d,  (which  arises  out  of  the  first,)  of  a 
competent  English  court,  on  shipboard  if  not  on 
shore,  for  the  trial  of  homicides. 

["  If  it  be  true,"  observes  Dr.  Morrison,  "that  for- 
eigners are  not  protected  by  the  laws  of  the  land, 
the  necessity  for  obedience  is  cancelled.  Still  for- 
eigners living  under  a  despotic  government  must  be 
without  resource,  were  that  government  to  compel 
the  obedience  which  it  demands.  Were  physical 
force  resorted  to,  and  innocent  persons  seized  as 


NOTE  ON   HOMICIDES.  383 

hostages,  foreigners,  unsupported  by  their  own  gov- 
ernments, must  be  obliged  to  submit.  Such  an  un- 
just and  violent  measure  has  formerly,  on  various 
occasions,  been  resorted  to ;  but  of  late  years  the 
plan  adopted,  in  cases  of  homicide,  has  been  to  de- 
mand of  the  fellow-countrymen  of  the  alleged  man- 
slayer,  that  the  guilty  person  be  found  out  and 
handed  over  to  the  Chinese  for  punishment.  This 
is  in  effect  to  constitute  them  a  criminal  court. 
Were  a  man  to  be  delivered  up  by  the  persons  thus 
called  upon,  he  would  be  regarded  by  the  govern- 
ment as  already  condemned.  His  punishment, 
painful  experience  tells  us,  would  be  certain.  Since, 
then,  the  Chinese  are  thus  ready  to  regard  foreign- 
ers as  the  judges  of  their  fellow-countrymen,  why 
should  foreign  governments  hesitate  to  establish 
criminal  courts'?  Courts  so  established  will,  it  is 
true,  meet  with  difficulty  when  compelled  to  acquit 
a  man  declared  guilty  by  the  Chinese,  or  to  punish 
lightly  one  whom,  by  the  unjust  decree  of  Kien- 
loong,  the  local  government  would  capitally  con- 
demn :  when,  however,  it  is  found  by  the  Chinese 
that  the  guilty  manslayer  can  no  longer  pass  un- 
punished, it  is  probable  that  they  will  themselves 
remove  every  difficulty,  and  the  decree  of  Kieii- 
loong  will  meet  the  disregard  that  it  merits."] 


END    OF    VOL.    1. 


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